T-Cell Receptor Rearrangements in Early Stages of Mycosis Fungoides May Be Associated with Pronounced Copy Number Variations: A Prognostic Factor?

Mycosis fungoides (MF), the most common form of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, poses significant diagnostic challenges due to its overlap with benign inflammatory skin diseases and the absence of specific symptoms. Accurate early diagnosis and stratification of patients by progression risk are essential for effective treatment. This study proposes a proof-of-concept for integrating T-cell receptor (TCR) clonality analysis with somatic mutation profiling to enhance diagnostic confidence and prognostic accuracy in early-stage MF. This study's methodology comprised the analysis of nine patients with early MF (stages IA/IB) using whole-exome sequencing and TCR repertoire profiling. The analysis revealed the presence of clonal TCR rearrangements in seven patients, while somatic mutations were identified in two. A notable finding was a recurrent chromosome 7 trisomy in these two cases. The patients were stratified into three molecular profiles: (1) somatic mutations with clonal TCR rearrangement (n = 2), (2) clonal TCR rearrangement without somatic mutations (n = 4), and (3) neither somatic mutations nor clonal TCR rearrangement (n = 3). These findings emphasise the heterogeneity of MF and underscore the limitations of relying solely on TCR clonality or mutation burden for diagnosis. This study underscores the potential of somatic mutations as diagnostic markers to distinguish MF from benign conditions and as prognostic indicators for disease progression. A combined genetic approach may refine treatment decisions, particularly for patients with higher tumor cell fractions and pronounced genetic alterations. Despite the limited size of the cohort, the results advocate for larger, multi-center studies to validate these findings and integrate genetic analyses into routine MF management.

Primary Cutaneous Peripheral T-Cell Lymphoma NOS: Diagnostic Criteria and Challenges

ABSTRACT

Primary cutaneous peripheral T-cell lymphoma not otherwise specified (PTCL NOS) denotes lymphomas that do not conform to a recognized entity. Within this category, 3 specific lymphoproliferative diseases had been granted provisional status pending further confirmation of their validity as distinct entities; acral CD8+ lymphoma-recently accepted as acral CD8+ lymphoproliferative disorder-aggressive epidermotropic CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell lymphoma, and CD4+ small-medium T-cell lymphoproliferative disorder. The adoption of stringent diagnostic criteria, which include clinical, morphological, and immunohistochemical data, and some inherent variations of these within individual cases, raises problems as to the boundaries between these tumors and a diagnosis of PTCL NOS. This review discusses the evolution of our knowledge of these tumors and their diagnostic criteria with respect to the wider PTCL NOS category.

Update on primary cutaneous T-cell lymphomas rare subtypes

Rare subtypes of cutaneous T-cell lymphomas (CTCL) include four entities, primary cutaneous γδ T-cell lymphoma, primary cutaneous CD8+ aggressive epidermotropic cytotoxic T-cell lymphoma, and primary cutaneous CD4+ small/medium T-cell lymphoproliferative disorders, primary cutaneous acral CD8+ T-cell lymphoma, which were previously considered provisional and are now included in the new 5th World Health Organization classification of hematolymphoid tumors as distinct entities. An updated summary of the clinical, histological, and genomic characteristics of these uncommon CTCL subtypes is given in this review, with a focus on the growing body of knowledge regarding their classification and possible treatment strategies.

Aggressive Cutaneous Lymphomas and Their Mimics

Cutaneous lymphomas encompass a heterogeneous group of neoplasms with a wide spectrum of clinical presentations, histopathologic features, and prognosis. Because there are overlapping pathologic features among indolent and aggressive forms and with systemic lymphomas that involve the skin, clinicopathologic correlation is essential. Herein, the clinical and histopathologic features of aggressive cutaneous B- and T-cell lymphomas are reviewed. Indolent cutaneous lymphomas/lymphoproliferative disorders, systemic lymphomas, and reactive processes that may mimic these entities are also discussed. This article highlights distinctive clinical and histopathologic features, increases awareness of rare entities, and presents new and evolving developments in the field.

Genetics Abnormalities with Clinical Impact in Primary Cutaneous Lymphomas

Simple Summary

The genetic landscape of cutaneous T-cell lymphomas analyzed by sequencing high throughput techniques shows a heterogeneous somatic mutational profile and genomic copy number variations in the TCR signaling effectors, the NF-κB elements, DNA damage/repair elements, JAK/STAT pathway elements and epigenetic modifiers. A mutational and genomic stratification of these patients provides new opportunities for the development or repurposing of (personalized) therapeutic strategies. The genetic heterogeneity in cutaneous B-cell lymphoma parallels with the specific subtype. Damaging mutations in primary cutaneous diffuse large B-cell lymphoma of the leg type, involving MYD88 gene, or BCL6 and MYC translocations or CDKN2A deletions are useful for diagnostic purposes. The more indolent forms, as the primary cutaneous lymphoma of follicle center cell (somatic mutations in TNFRSF14 and 1p36 deletions) and the cutaneous lymphoproliferative disorder of the marginal zone cells (FAS gene), present with a more restricted pattern of genetic alterations.

Abstract

Primary cutaneous lymphomas comprise a heterogeneous group of extranodal non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL) that arise from skin resident lymphoid cells and are manifested by specific lymphomatous cutaneous lesions with no evidence of extracutaneous disease at the time of diagnosis. They may originate from mature T-lymphocytes (70% of all cases), mature B-lymphocytes (25–30%) or, rarely, NK cells. Cutaneous T-cell lymphomas (CTCL) comprise a heterogeneous group of T-cell malignancies including Mycosis Fungoides (MF) the most frequent subtype, accounting for approximately half of CTCL, and Sézary syndrome (SS), which is an erythrodermic and leukemic subtype characterized by significant blood involvement. The mutational landscape of MF and SS by NGS include recurrent genomic alterations in the TCR signaling effectors (i.e., PLCG1), the NF-κB elements (i.e., CARD11), DNA damage/repair elements (TP53 or ATM), JAK/STAT pathway elements or epigenetic modifiers (DNMT3). Genomic copy number variations appeared to be more prevalent than somatic mutations. Other CTCL subtypes such as primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma also harbor genetic alterations of the JAK/STAT pathway in up to 50% of cases. Recently, primary cutaneous aggressive epidermotropic T-cell lymphoma, a rare fatal subtype, was found to contain a specific profile of JAK2 rearrangements. Other aggressive cytotoxic CTCL (primary cutaneous γδ T-cell lymphomas) also show genetic alterations in the JAK/STAT pathway in a large proportion of patients. Thus, CTCL patients have a heterogeneous genetic/transcriptional and epigenetic background, and there is no uniform treatment for these patients. In this scenario, a pathway-based personalized management is required. Cutaneous B-cell lymphoma (CBCL) subtypes present a variable genetic profile. The genetic heterogeneity parallels the multiple types of specialized B-cells and their specific tissue distribution. Particularly, many recurrent hotspot and damaging mutations in primary cutaneous diffuse large B-cell lymphoma of the leg type, involving MYD88 gene, or BCL6 and MYC translocations and BLIMP1 or CDKN2A deletions are useful for diagnostic and prognostic purposes for this aggressive subtype from other indolent CBCL forms.

Recent advances in T-cell lymphoid neoplasms

T Cells comprise many subtypes of specified lymphocytes, and their differentiation and function take place in different tissues. This cellular diversity is also observed in the multiple ways T-cell transformation gives rise to a variety of T-cell neoplasms. This review covers the main types of T-cell malignancies and their specific characteristics, emphasizing recent advances at the cellular and molecular levels as well as differences and commonalities among them.

Genetic and epigenetic insights into cutaneous T-cell lymphoma

Primary cutaneous T-cell lymphomas (CTCL) constitute a heterogeneous group of non-Hodgkin T-cell lymphomas that present in the skin. In recent years significant progress has been made in the understanding of the pathogenesis of CTCL. Progress in CTCL classifications combined with technical advances, in particular next generation sequencing (NGS), enabled a more detailed analysis of the genetic and epigenetic landscape and transcriptional changes in clearly defined diagnostic entities. These studies not only demonstrated extensive heterogeneity between different CTCL subtypes but also identified recurrent alterations that are highly characteristic for diagnostic subgroups of CTCL. The identified alterations in particular involve epigenetic remodelling, cell cycle regulation, and the constitutive activation of targetable, oncogenic pathways. In this respect, aberrant JAK-STAT signaling is a recurrent theme, however not universal for all CTCL and with seemingly different underlaying causes in different entities. A number of the mutated genes identified are potentially actionable targets for the development of novel therapeutic strategies. Moreover, these studies have produced an enormous amount of information that will be critically important for the further development of improved diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers that can assist in the clinical management of CTCL patients. In the present review the main findings of these studies in relation to their functional impact on the malignant transformation process are discussed for different subtypes of CTCL.

Gamma/Delta Phenotype in Primary Cutaneous T-cell Lymphomas and Lymphoid Proliferations: Challenges for Diagnosis and Classification

Primary cutaneous T-cell lymphomas pose a diagnostic challenge for dermatopathologists, hematopathologists, and general surgical pathologists. Recognition of gamma/delta phenotype in cutaneous T proliferations has been enhanced by the availability of antibodies against TCRgamma and delta for immunohistochemistry. Thus, reporting gamma/delta phenotype in a cutaneous T-cell lymphoid proliferation may indicate a significant change in therapy and a challenge for dermatologists and oncologists who treat these patients. Herein, we discuss primary cutaneous gamma/delta T-cell lymphoma, its differential diagnosis, and other skin lymphoid proliferations that may show gamma/delta phenotype. Awareness of the occurrence of gamma/delta phenotype in both T-cell lymphomas and benign lymphoid proliferations involving skin is crucial for a better interpretation of histopathologic findings. Integration of clinical presentation, morphology, immunoprofile, and molecular findings is key for a correct diagnosis and appropriate therapy of lesions displaying gamma/delta T-cell phenotype.