Distribution of β-dystroglycan immunopositive globules in the subventricular zone of rat brain

Ventricular-subventricular zone fractones are speckled basement membranes that function as a neural stem cell niche

Neural stem cells (NSCs) are retained in the adult ventricular–subventricular zone (V-SVZ), a specialized neurogenic niche with a unique cellular architecture. It currently remains unclear whether or how NSCs utilize basement membranes (BMs) in this niche. Here, we examine the molecular compositions and functions of BMs in the adult mouse V-SVZ. Whole-mount V-SVZ immunostaining revealed that fractones, which are fingerlike processes of extravascular BMs, are speckled BMs unconnected to the vasculature, and differ in their molecular composition from vascular BMs. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive astrocytes and NSCs produce and adhere to speckled BMs. Furthermore, Gfap-Cre-mediated Lamc1^flox(E1605Q) knockin mice, in which integrin-binding activities of laminins are specifically nullified in GFAP-positive cells, exhibit a decreased number and size of speckled BMs and reduced in vitro neurosphere-forming activity. Our results reveal niche activities of fractones/speckled BMs for NSCs and provide molecular insights into how laminin–integrin interactions regulate NSCs in vivo.

Fractone Bulbs Derive from Ependymal Cells and Their Laminin Composition Influence the Stem Cell Niche in the Subventricular Zone

Fractones are extracellular matrix structures in the neural stem cell niche of the subventricular zone (SVZ), where they appear as round deposits named bulbs or thin branching lines called stems. Their cellular origin and what determines their localization at this site is poorly studied, and it remains unclear whether they influence neural stem and progenitor cell formation, proliferation, and/or maintenance. To address these questions, we analyzed whole-mount preparations of the lateral ventricle of male and female mice by confocal microscopy using different extracellular matrix and cell markers. We found that bulbs are rarely connected to stems and that they contain laminin α5 and α2 chains, respectively. Fractone bulbs were profusely distributed throughout the SVZ and appeared associated with the center of pinwheels, a critical site for adult neurogenesis. We demonstrate that bulbs appear at the apical membrane of ependymal cells at the end of the first week after birth. The use of transgenic mice lacking laminin α5 gene expression (Lama5) in endothelium and in FoxJ1-expressing ependymal cells revealed ependymal cells as the source of laminin α5-containing fractone bulbs. Deletion of laminin α5 from ependymal cells correlated with a 60% increase in cell proliferation, as determined by phospho-histone H3 staining, and with a selective reduction in the number of slow-dividing cells. These results indicate that fractones are a key component of the SVZ and suggest that laminin α5 modulates the physiology of the neural stem cell niche.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Our work unveils key aspects of fractones, extracellular matrix structures that are present in the SVZ that still lack a comprehensive characterization. We show that fractones extensively interact with neural stem cells, whereas some of them are located precisely at pinwheel centers, which are hotspots for adult neurogenesis. Our results also demonstrate that fractones increase in size during aging and that their interactions with neural stem and progenitor cells become more complex in old mice. Last, we show that fractone bulbs are produced by ependymal cells and that their laminin content regulates neural stem cells.

Glial and perivascular structures in the subfornical organ: distinguishing the shell and core

The subfornical organ (SFO) is a circumventricular organ with a chemosensitive function, and its vessels have no blood-brain barrier. Our study investigated the glial and vascular components in the SFO to determine whether their distributions indicate subdivisions, how to characterize the vessels and how to demarcate the SFO. To this end, we investigated glial markers (GFAP, glutamine synthetase, S100) and other markers, including vimentin and nestin (immature glia), laminin (basal lamina), β-dystroglycan (glio-vascular connections), and aquaporin 4 (glial water channels). We determined that the 'shell' of the SFO was marked by immunoreactivity for S100, GFAP and aquaporin 4. Nestin immunoreactivity was characteristic of the 'core'. Vimentin was almost evenly distributed. Glutamine synthetase immunoreactivity occurred in the shell but its expression was sparse. Vessels in the core were decorated with laminin but showed a discontinuous expression of aquaporin 4. Vimentin and GFAP staining was usually in separate glial elements, which may be related to their functional differences. Similar to other vessels in the brain, β-dystroglycan was detected along the shell vessels but laminin was not. The gradual disappearance of the laminin immunopositivity was attributed to the gradual disappearance of the perivascular space. Thus, our findings suggest that the shell and core glio-vascular structures are adapted to different sensory functions: osmoperception and the perception of circulating peptides, respectively.

Unconventional Neurogenic Niches and Neurogenesis Modulation by Vitamins

Although the generation of new neurons occurs in adult mammals, it has been classically described in two defined regions of the brain denominated neurogenic niches: the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles and the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus. In these regions, neural stem cells give rise to new neurons and glia, which functionally integrate into the existing circuits under physiological conditions. However, accumulating evidence indicates the presence of neurogenic potential in other brain regions, from which multipotent precursors can be isolated and differentiated in vitro. In some of these regions, neuron generation occurs at low levels; however, the addition of growth factors, hormones or other signaling molecules increases the proliferation and differentiation of precursor cells. In addition, vitamins, which are micronutrients necessary for normal brain development, and whose deficiency produces neurological impairments, have a regulatory effect on neural stem cells in vitro and in vivo. In the present review, we will describe the progress that has been achieved in determining the neurogenic potential in other regions, known as unconventional niches, as well as the characteristics of the neural stem cells described for each region. Finally, we will revisit the roles of commonly known vitamins as modulators of precursor cell proliferation and differentiation, and their role in the complex and tight molecular signaling that impacts these neurogenic niches.

Components of the basal lamina and dystrophin-dystroglycan complex in the neurointermediate lobe of rat pituitary gland: different localizations of beta-dystroglycan, dystrobrevins, alpha1-syntrophin, and aquaporin-4

The so-called neurointermediate lobe is composed of the intermediate and neural lobes of the pituitary. The present immunohistochemical study investigated components of the basal lamina (laminin, agrin, and perlecan), the dystrophin-dystroglycan complex (dystrophin, beta-dystroglycan, alpha1-dystrobrevin, beta-dystrobrevin, utrophin, and alpha1-syntrophin), and the aquaporins (aquaporin-4 and -9). Glia markers (GFAP, S100, and glutamine synthetase) and components of connective tissue (collagen type I and fibronectin) were also labeled. In the neurohypophysis, immunostaining of basal lamina delineated meningeal invaginations. In these invaginations, vessels were seen to penetrate the organ without submerging into its parenchyma. On the parenchymal side of the invaginations, beta-dystroglycan was detected, whereas utrophin was detected in the walls of vessels. Immunostaining of alpha1-dystrobrevin and alpha1-syntrophin did not delineate the vessels. The cells of the intermediate lobe were fully immunoreactive to alpha1-dystrobrevin and alpha1-syntrophin, whereas components of the basal lamina delineated the contours of the cells. GFAP-immunoreactive processes surrounded them. Aquaporin-4 localized at the periphery of the neurohypophysis, mainly adjacent to the intermediate lobe but not along the vessels. It colocalized only partially with GFAP and not at all with alpha1-syntrophin. Aquaporin-9 was not detected. These results emphasize the possibility that the components of the dystrophin-dystroglycan complex localize differently and raise the question about the roles of dystrobrevins, alpha1-syntrophin, and aquaporin-4 in the functions of the intermediate and neural lobes, respectively.

Ependymal cells: biology and pathology

The literature was reviewed to summarize the current understanding of the role of ciliated ependymal cells in the mammalian brain. Previous reviews were summarized. Publications from the past 10 years highlight interactions between ependymal cells and the subventricular zone and the possible role of restricted ependymal populations in neurogenesis. Ependymal cells provide trophic support and possibly metabolic support for progenitor cells. Channel proteins such as aquaporins may be important for determining water fluxes at the ventricle wall. The junctional and anchoring proteins are now fairly well understood, as are proteins related to cilia function. Defects in ependymal adhesion and cilia function can cause hydrocephalus through several different mechanisms, one possibility being loss of patency of the cerebral aqueduct. Ependymal cells are susceptible to infection by a wide range of common viruses; while they may act as a line of first defense, they eventually succumb to repeated attacks in long-lived organisms. Ciliated ependymal cells are almost certainly important during brain development. However, the widespread absence of ependymal cells from the adult human lateral ventricles suggests that they may have only regionally restricted value in the mature brain of large size.