Problem solving therapy for the depression-executive dysfunction syndrome of late life

Telehealth delivery of group-format cognitive rehabilitation to older veterans with TBI: a mixed-methods pilot study

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is common among Veterans and may interact with aging, increasing risk for negative cognitive, emotional, and functional outcomes. However, no accessible (i.e., in-home) group interventions for TBI targeted to older adults exist. Goal Oriented Attentional Self-Regulation (GOALS) is a manualized, group cognitive rehabilitation training that improves executive function and emotional regulation among Veterans with TBI and healthy older adults. Our objectives were to adapt GOALS for delivery to older Veterans via in-home video telehealth (IVT) and evaluate feasibility and participant-rated acceptability of the telehealth GOALS intervention (TeleGOALS). Six Veterans 69+, with multiple TBIs completed the 10-session intervention in groups of 2. One participant withdrew, and another completed the remaining sessions alone (total n enrolled = 8). Required adaptations were noted; questionnaire responses were quantified; and feedback was analyzed and coded to identify themes. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used to examine feasibility (i.e., recruitment and retention) and participant-rated acceptability. Minimal adaptations were required for IVT delivery. Key themes emerged: (a) the importance of telehealth logistics, (b) facilitators' roles in prioritizing interpersonal connection, and (c) telehealth's capability to create opportunities for community reintegration. Thematic saturation (the point at which feedback from respondents is consistent and no further adaptations are required) was achieved. Participants stated they would likely recommend TeleGOALS to other Veterans. Although further study with a larger, more diverse sample is required, the adapted TeleGOALS intervention appears highly feasible and acceptable for older Veterans with TBI able and willing to participate in a group-format IVT intervention.

Rehabilitation of Neuropsychiatric Symptoms in Patients With Long COVID: Position Statement

Long COVID, a term used to describe ongoing symptoms after COVID-19 infection, parallels the course of other postviral syndromes. Neuropsychiatric symptoms of long COVID can be persistent and interfere with quality of life and functioning. Within the biopsychosocial framework of chronic illness, rehabilitation professionals can address the neuropsychiatric sequelae of long COVID. However, current practice models are not designed to address concurrent psychiatric and cognitive symptoms in adults living with long COVID. Thus, we present a biopsychosocial framework for long COVID and provide treatment strategies based on evidence from current literature of postviral chronic illness. These recommendations will guide rehabilitation professionals in identifying common neuropsychiatric symptoms in long COVID that can be targeted for intervention and addressing these symptoms via integrative interventions taking into account the biopsychosocial presentation of long COVID symptoms.

Decision-making executive function profile and performance in older adults with major depression: a case-control study

OBJECTIVES

Decision making (DM) is a component of executive functioning, essential for choosing appropriate decisions. Executive dysfunctioning is particularly common in late-life depression, however the literature is scarce on DM. This case-control study aimed to evaluate the DM profile and performance in participants with and without unipolar major depression.

METHOD

The DM profile and performance were assessed by the Melbourne Decision Making Questionnaire and the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), respectively, in three groups of older adults from a university-based geriatric psychiatry clinic, i.e. current depression (n = 30), remitted depression (n = 43) and healthy controls (n = 59). The Hamilton Depression scale (HAM-D) 21 items, the Hamilton Anxiety scale, and the Mini-Mental State Examination were used to access depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and cognitive impairment, respectively. Multinomial, nominal and binary logistic regression was used to evaluate the associations between depression, depressive symptomatology and DM.

RESULTS

In comparison to the control group, patients with current depression presented higher scores in buck-passing and proscratination DM profiles. In the hypervigilance profile, there was a significant difference between current and remitted depression groups. A higher value ​in the HAM-D scale increased the probability of disadvantageous DM profiles. Depressive patients showed a tendency of a higher mean score in both disadvantageous decks (A and B) of IGT. Patients with current depression showed a worse performance compared to the remitted depression group in the IGT netscore.

CONCLUSION

Older adults with current depression showed DM profiles considered maladaptive or disadvantageous compared to both remitted depression and healthy controls groups.

Cognitive outcomes are differentially associated with depression severity trajectories during psychotherapy treatment for late life major depressive disorder

OBJECTIVES

Late Life Depression (LLD) is associated with persistent cognitive dysfunction even after depression symptoms improve. The present study was designed to examine cognitive outcomes associated with the pattern of depression severity change during psychotherapy intervention for LLD.

METHODS

96 community-dwelling adults ages 65-91 with major depressive disorder completed 12 sessions of Problem-Solving Therapy at the University of California, San Francisco. Nonlinear trajectories of depression severity ratings using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale were computed from multiple time points collected throughout the weekly psychotherapy intervention. Performance on measures of cognition (information processing speed, executive functioning, verbal learning, memory) was assessed at baseline and post-treatment. Linear mixed-effects models examined associations between nonlinear depression severity trajectories and post-treatment change in cognitive performance.

RESULTS

Broadly, different patterns of depression change during treatment were associated with improved cognition post-treatment. Greater and more consistent interval improvements in depression ratings were differentially associated with improvements in aspects of verbal learning, memory, and executive function post-treatment, while no associations were found with information processing speed.

CONCLUSIONS

The heterogeneity of depression trajectories associated with improved cognitive outcomes suggests that the temporal pattern of depression response may impact specific cognitive processes distinctly. Results suggest that use of nonlinear depression severity trajectories may help to elucidate complex associations between the time course of depression response and cognitive outcomes of psychotherapy in LLD. These findings have important implications for identifying treatment targets to enhance clinical and cognitive outcomes of psychotherapy in LLD.

Late Life Depression: The Essentials and the Essential Distinctions

Late life depression (LLD), a familiar syndrome, is not differentiated in the DSM-5. LLD can resemble depressive syndromes in younger adults but it differs in demographic characteristics, phenomenology, prognosis, treatment, suicide risk, relationship to other disorders, and etiology. Older depressed adults often present with fewer major depressive symptoms, less emphasis on mood disturbance, greater preoccupation with somatic or psychotic symptoms, and misleading cognitive deficits. LLD's relationships with medical and neurocognitive symptoms and with inflammatory and immune factors are complex. Formal screening tools and biopsychosocial assessment informs diagnosis and treatment. Evidence supports the effectiveness of lifestyle interventions, several psychotherapies, and a variety of somatic treatment approaches. Comorbid medical disorders must be taken into account when planning treatment. In this article, the authors describe the characteristics of LLD, present an approach to assessment and management, and recommend that future DSM editions include a new specifier to differentiate LLD from other depressive syndromes.

Executive dysfunction and risk of suicide in older adults: a population-based prospective cohort study

OBJECTIVE

It is uncertain what factors increases the risk of suicide in older adults without depression, and it is unknown whether executive dysfunction (ED) is one of those factors. We aimed to examine the effect of ED on the risk of suicide in non-demented older adults without depression.

METHODS

In an ongoing population-based prospective cohort of Korean older adults, we identified suicide using the National Mortality Database and suicidal ideation or attempt (SIA) based on the Korean version of the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview. We defined ED as performing below -1.5 SD of age-adjusted, gender-adjusted and education-adjusted norms in any of following tests: Frontal Assessment Battery, Trail Making Test A, Digit Span Test or Verbal Fluency Test.

RESULTS

The mean age of the 4791 participants at baseline was 69.7 (SD 6.4) years, and 57.1% of them were women (mean follow-up duration=4.9 years). ED at baseline increased the risk of suicide by about seven times (HR 7.20, 95% CI 1.84 to 28.12, p=0.005) but did not change the risk of SIA. However, cognitive impairment without ED did not change the risks of suicide and SIA. In participants with ED, being aged 75 years or above, living alone, and having a low socioeconomic status were associated with the risk of suicide.

CONCLUSION

ED is a strong risk factor of late life suicide independent from depression, particularly in very old adults living in disadvantaged environments.

Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Late-life Depression and its Potential Application in China

Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is a time-limited, structured, interpersonally oriented psychotherapy, with demonstrated efficacy for the treatment of major depression across the lifespan. IPT uses a medical model of illness and links depressed mood to four research-informed interpersonal problem areas: complicated grief, role transitions, role disputes, and interpersonal deficits/sensitivity. The IPT model of vulnerability to depression nicely dovetails with interpersonal issues that are faced by older adults, and this article focuses on the application of IPT for late-life depression in China. The group format of IPT may be a practical and efficient method of improving access to an established depression-focused treatment for China's rapidly aging population and has the advantage of providing important social support for patients who feel lonely, isolated, and stigmatized. Short-term interventions like IPT are more cost-effective from a public health perspective and can easily be delivered in primary care facilities, where many elderly patients receive care. IPT is effective in different cultures, and possible cultural adaptations of IPT for older adults in China are discussed herein.

Psychological Treatment for Depressive Disorder

Depression is highly prevalent and causes unnecessary human suffering and economic loss. Therefore, its treatment and prevention are of utmost importance. There are several advantages of using psychotherapy either by itself or combined with pharmacological treatment methods in the treatment of depression. First, it is well known that combining biological treatment with psychosocial methods increases the chances of recovery. Second, in some individuals, psychotherapy continues to be the only solution. Third, the use of antidepressants contains some safety risks and side effects, but psychotherapy does not. Fourth, clinically, depressive patients prefer psychotherapy to drug therapy. Use of a depression-focused psychotherapy alone is recommended as an initial treatment choice for patients with mild to moderate depression, with clinical evidence supporting the use of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), psychodynamic psychotherapy (PDP), and problem-solving therapy (PST) in individual and group formats. Important developments took place within the past 20 years in the psychotherapy of depression. In the present chapter, we introduced several key issues, such as, Are all psychotherapies equally effective? Who benefits from psychotherapies? Is telepsychotherapy effective? Finally, we introduce the psychotherapy for special populations.

Anxiety disorders and figural fluency: A measure of executive function

BACKGROUND

Anxiety possibly interferes with executive functioning, although most studies rely on anxiety symptoms or lack control for comorbid depression. The objective of the present study is to examine the association between executive functioning and (individual) anxiety disorders with ak,ld without controlling for depression.

METHOD

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder with and without agoraphobia, agoraphobia, social phobia, as well as depressive disorder according to DSM-IV criteria were assessed with the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview in 82,360 community-dwelling people participating in the Lifelines cohort. Figural fluency as a measure of executive functioning was assessed with the Ruff Figural Fluency Test (RFTT). Linear regression analyses with the RFFT score as the dependent variable and psychiatric diagnosis as independent variables (dummies) were performed, adjusted for potential confounders. Multivariate results are presented with and without adjustment for depression.

RESULTS

Presence of any anxiety disorder was associated with worse performance on the RFFT (B = - 0.78, SE = 0.32, p = .015), independent of depression. No dose-response relationship with the number of anxiety disorders was found. Only agoraphobia and generalized anxiety disorder were significantly associated with the RFFT score in the multivariate models. Agoraphobia remained significant when further adjusted for depressive disorder (B = - 1.14, SE = 0.41, p < .01), while GAD did not (B = 0.013, SE = 0.431, p = .975).

LIMITATIONS

Executive function was tested by only one measure, namely figural fluency.

CONCLUSION

Agoraphobia is associated with worse executive functioning. Treatment of agoraphobia could be influenced by the executive dysfunction which clinicians should be aware of when regular treatment fails.

Advances in Pharmacotherapy of Late-Life Depression

This paper reviews recent research on late-life depression (LLD) pharmacotherapy, focusing on updated information for monotherapy and augmentation treatments. We then review new research on moderators of clinical response and how to use the information for improved efficacy.

RECENT FINDINGS

A recent review shows that sertraline, paroxetine, and duloxetine were superior to placebo for the treatment of LLD. There is concern that paroxetine could have adverse outcomes in the geriatric population due to anticholinergic properties; however, studies show no increases in mortality, dementia risk, or cognitive measures. Among newer antidepressants, vortioxetine has demonstrated efficacy in LLD, quetiapine has demonstrated efficacy especially for patients with sleep disturbances, and aripiprazole augmentation for treatment resistance in LLD was found to be safe and effective. Researchers have also been identifying moderators of LLD that can guide treatment. Researchers are learning how to associate moderators, neuroanatomical models, and antidepressant response. SSRI/SNRIs remain first-line treatment for LLD. Aripiprazole is an effective and safe augmentation for treatment resistance. Studies are identifying actionable moderators that can increase treatment response.

Improving late life depression and cognitive control through the use of therapeutic video game technology: A proof-of-concept randomized trial

BACKGROUND

Existing treatments for depression are known to have only modest effects, are insufficiently targeted, and are inconsistently utilized, particularly in older adults. Indeed, older adults with impaired cognitive control networks tend to demonstrate poor response to a majority of existing depression interventions. Cognitive control interventions delivered using entertainment software have the potential to not only target the underlying cerebral dysfunction associated with depression, but to do so in a manner that is engaging and engenders adherence to treatment protocol.

METHODS

In this proof-of-concept trial (Clinicaltrials.gov #: NCT02229188), individuals with late life depression (LLD) (22; 60+ years old) were randomized to either problem solving therapy (PST, n = 10) or a neurobiologically inspired digital platform designed to enhance cognitive control faculties (Project: EVO™, n = 12). Given the overlapping functional neuroanatomy of mood disturbances and executive dysfunction, we explored the impact of an intervention targeting cognitive control abilities, functional disability, and mood in older adults suffering from LLD, and how those outcomes compare to a therapeutic gold standard.

RESULTS

EVO participants demonstrated similar improvements in mood and self-reported function after 4 weeks of treatment to PST participants. The EVO participants also showed generalization to untrained measures of working memory and attention, as well as negativity bias, a finding not evident in the PST condition. Individuals assigned to EVO demonstrated 100% adherence.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides preliminary findings that this therapeutic video game targeting cognitive control deficits may be an efficacious LLD intervention. Future research is needed to confirm these findings.

Design and Implementation of an Intervention Development Study: Retaining Cognition While Avoiding Late-Life Depression (ReCALL)

OBJECTIVE

To discuss the design, rationale, and implementation of an intervention development study addressing indicated and selective prevention of depression and anxiety in individuals 60 years and older with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and in their caregivers.

METHODS

In Phase I, now completed, we developed and standardized problem-solving therapy (PST) and the combined PST + moderate-intensity physical exercise (PE) intervention to be administered to participants with MCI and their caregivers together, dyadically, with both participants working with the same interventionist in the same therapy sessions. In Phase II we have been testing the interventions against enhanced usual care (EUC) and have addressed challenges to recruitment. Randomization was to one of three cells: PST + PE, PST, or EUC.

RESULTS

Although we set out to intervene dyadically, many individuals with MCI lived alone or did not have a support person who could participate in the study with them. Consequently, we modified the study to include MCI participants with and without support persons. Ninety-four participants were enrolled: 20 with MCI together with their support persons (N = 20 dyads) and 54 MCI participants without accompanying support persons. Most participants have been satisfied with the usefulness of the interventions in managing stress and cognitive problems.

CONCLUSION

PST and moderate-intensity PE are acceptable interventions for depression and anxiety prevention in older adults with MCI and their available caregivers.

Meta-analysis of problem solving therapy for the treatment of major depressive disorder in older adults

OBJECTIVE

Major depressive disorder (MDD) affects many older adults and is associated with poor medical and mental health outcomes. Problem Solving Therapy (PST) has emerged as a promising psychotherapy for MDD in older adults, although the efficacy of PST in this population has not been well described. We examined the effectiveness of PST for the treatment of MDD in older adults in a systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

We searched electronic databases to identify randomized controlled trials comparing PST to a control condition or other treatment for MDD in adults with an average age of 60 years or older. We used meta-analysis to arrive at pooled summary measures of the efficacy of PST when compared to control conditions on the change in depressive symptoms and other outcomes.

RESULTS

Nine studies with a total of 569 participants (290 PST, 279 control) met inclusion criteria. Most studies administered PST in person and were between 6 and 12 weeks in duration. Meta-analysis of six studies evaluating the effect of PST on depression using the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression identified a significant reduction in depression associated with PST (pooled mean difference = -6.94, 95%CI -10.91 to -2.97, d = 1.15, P = 0.0006). PST was also effective in reducing disability in studies reporting this outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Our review supports the existing research literature on PST suggesting that it is an effective treatment for older people with MDD. Further study is required to understand long-term outcomes associated with PST and its efficacy when compared to other treatments.

THE IMPACT OF LATE-LIFE ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION ON COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY AND COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING SKILL ACQUISITION

BACKGROUND

Studies examining treatment moderators and mediators in late-life anxiety and depression are sparse. Executive functioning skills decrease with age, and are poorer in the context of anxiety and depression. One of the key cognitive behavioral therapy techniques for anxiety and depression is cognitive restructuring (CR), which teaches people to identify and dispute maladaptive thoughts. There is evidence that cognitive flexibility (CF), one aspect of executive functioning, has a negative impact on CR skill acquisition in nonclinical older adults, and this warrants extension in a clinical sample.

METHOD

This study assessed CR skill acquisition in a clinical sample of 47 older adults with anxiety and depression and 53 nonclinical controls during an experimental paradigm, and investigated the influence of CF on this relationship. A battery of neuropsychological tests assessing CF were administered and CR was learned during a brief intervention.

RESULTS

The clinical sample showed poorer CF on some measures, as well as poorer CR quality and efficacy (reduction in subjective distress). CF partially mediated the relationship between clinical status and CR quality, and between clinical status and CR efficacy.

CONCLUSION

These results provide preliminary evidence that older adults with anxiety and depression are worse at learning and benefiting from CR with a brief intervention and this is partially due to having poorer CF skills. These findings warrant further examination in a treatment context to assess whether CR skill acquisition improves over treatment.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapies in older adults with depression and cognitive deficits: a systematic review

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapies (CBTs) in improving depressive symptoms, disability, and cognition in older adults with depression and cognitive deficits.

DESIGN

It was performed a systematic search for articles published between 1994 and February 2014 in the MEDLINE/Pubmed, PsycINFO, and SCIELO. The studies should have provided information about benefits after CBTs to older adults with depression and cognitive deficits.

RESULTS

Cognitive behavioral therapy focused on problem solving is the main approach studied, having better effectiveness than supportive therapy in randomized clinical trials. Significant improvements in mood and disability were consistent, although evidence of changes in cognitive measures is controversial, less studied, and limited. Nevertheless, improvements in executive functions, processing speed, and changes in patients' perspectives of problem solving skills, such as generating alternatives and decision-making, were described. Also, it would be necessary that future studies more often evaluate cognitive status of depressed elders, as well as cognitive changes after psychotherapy. It should be emphasized that there is a lack of studies in this field, and more approaches in CBTs need to be investigated to this population.

CONCLUSION

Older adults with depression and cognitive deficits can benefit from CBTs. Improvements in mood and disability are more consistent than changes in cognition, which are little studied after CBTs. It is necessary more studies in the field, as well as, to investigate more approaches in CBTs to older adults with depression and cognitive deficits.

Diagnosis and treatment of depression and cognitive impairment in late life

Cognitive impairment in late-life depression is prevalent, disabling, and heterogeneous. Although mild cognitive impairment in depression does not usually progress to dementia, accurate assessment of cognition is vital to prognosis and treatment planning. For example, executive dysfunction often accompanies late-life depression, influences performance across cognitive domains, and is associated with poor antidepressant treatment outcomes. Here, we review how assessment can capture dysfunction across cognitive domains and discuss cognitive trajectories frequently observed in late-life depression in the context of the neurobiology of this disorder. We also review the efficacy of a sample of interventions tailored to specific cognitive profiles.

Does cognition predict treatment response and remission in psychotherapy for late-life depression?

OBJECTIVES

To identify cognitive predictors of geriatric depression treatment outcome.

METHOD

Older participants completed baseline measures of memory and executive function, health, and baseline and post-treatment Hamilton Depression Scales (HAM-D) in a 12-week trial comparing psychotherapies (problem-solving vs. supportive; N = 46). We examined cognitive predictors to identify treatment responders (i.e., HAM-D scores reduced by ≥50%) and remitters (i.e., post-treatment HAM-D score ≤10).

RESULTS

Empirically derived decision trees identified poorer performance on switching (i.e., Trails B), with a cut-score of ≥82 predicting psychotherapy responders. No other cognitive or health variables predicted psychotherapy outcomes in the decision trees.

CONCLUSIONS

Psychotherapies that support or improve the executive skill of switching may augment treatment response for older patients exhibiting executive dysfunction in depression. If replicated, Trails B has potential as a brief cognitive tool for clinical decision-making in geriatric depression.

Association of age at depression onset with cognitive functioning in individuals with late-life depression and executive dysfunction

OBJECTIVE

To compare patterns of cognitive performance in older adults with late-onset depression (LOD; ≥65 years of age) with that of older adults with early-onset depression (EOD; <65 years).

METHODS

Participants were 171 adults aged 60 years or older with major depression and executive dysfunction who were participating in a randomized psychotherapy trial. Participants included 72 LOD and 99 EOD individuals. Cognitive performance on measures of verbal learning, memory, and executive functioning were evaluated. Demographic and clinical characteristics, severity of cerebrovascular risk factors, and disability ratings were also compared between groups.

RESULTS

The LOD group was older and had fewer previous episodes of depression and lower severity of depression compared with EOD participants. The LOD group demonstrated poorer performance on measures of verbal learning (F(1,161) = 4.28, p = 0.04) and memory (F(1,160) = 4.65, p = 0.03) than the EOD group. Linear regression analysis demonstrated that LOD and fewer years of education were significant predictors of poorer verbal learning (F(7,114) = 6.25, p <0.001) and memory (F(7,113)=7.24, p <0.001). Performance on measures of executive functioning, severity of vascular risk factors, and disability ratings did not differ between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

In older adults with depression and executive dysfunction, LOD was associated with poorer performance on measures of verbal learning and memory. Aging-related brain changes associated with LOD may play a more important role, leading to dysfunction in these cognitive domains than a history of recurrent depressive episodes in older adults with a dysexecutive syndrome.

Cognitive outcomes after psychotherapeutic interventions for major depression in older adults with executive dysfunction

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of psychotherapy on cognitive functioning in older adults with late-life depression (LLD) and executive dysfunction.

METHODS

Two hundred twenty-one adults aged 60 years and older participated in a randomized clinical trial comparing the efficacy of Problem Solving Therapy (PST) and Supportive Therapy (ST) for LLD. Cognitive performance on seven tests of executive functioning, verbal learning, and memory was evaluated at baseline, after 12 weeks of treatment, and at 24 weeks after the completion of treatment.

RESULTS

Performance on a measure of executive functioning with a significant information processing speed component (Stroop Color and Word Test) improved after treatment, F (1, 312) = 8.50, p = 0.002, and improved performance was associated with a reduction in depressive symptoms but not treatment type. Performance on other measures of executive functioning, verbal learning, and memory did not change significantly after 12 weeks of psychotherapy treatment.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that improvements in cognitive functioning after psychotherapy treatment for depression in older adults with executive dysfunction are likely focal and not distributed across all cognitive domains. Although previous analyses reported that PST was superior to ST in the treatment of depression, this analysis indicated no difference between the two treatments with regard to improvements in cognitive functioning.

Depressive symptoms and inductive reasoning performance: findings from the ACTIVE reasoning training intervention

Within the context of the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly study (ACTIVE; Ball et al., 2002; Jobe et al., 2001; Willis et al., 2006), we examined the longitudinal association of baseline depressive symptoms on inductive reasoning performance over a 10-year period between the reasoning training and control conditions (N = 1,375). At baseline, 322 participants (23%) reported elevated depressive symptoms, defined by a score ≥9 on the 12-item version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Mirowsky & Ross, 2003; Radloff, 1977). Differences in baseline depressive status were not associated with immediate posttraining gains or with subsequent annual change in reasoning performance, suggesting that the presence of elevated baseline depressive symptoms does not impact the ability to benefit from reasoning training.

Common psychiatric problems in cognitively impaired older patients: causes and management

Although dementias are defined by their cognitive and functional deficits, psychiatric problems are common, contribute to patient distress and caregiver burden, and precipitate institutionalization. Successful treatment involves understanding that physiologic, psychological, and environmental factors can contribute to the development of these symptoms. By carefully assessing each of these factors, clinicians can individualize treatment and flexibly use nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic approaches tailored to patients and the context of care. Although there exist limitations to many treatment options, clinicians can still adapt current knowledge to develop a multifaceted treatment approach that improves the quality of life for patients and their caregivers.

Choosing treatment for depression in older adults and evaluating response

An update is provided on the current information regarding late life depression with regard to assessment, clinical implications, and treatment recommendations. Several treatments are considered evidence-based, but when deployed into field trials, the efficacy of these treatments falls short. It is thought that the lower impact in community trials is due in large part to patient, clinical, environmental, socio-economic, and cognitive correlates that influence treatment response. The aim is to assist providers in making decisions about what type of treatment to recommend based on a sound assessment of these clinical correlates.

Cognitive functioning and late-life depression

This brief report provides an introduction to the topic of cognitive functioning in late-life depression (LLD). In addition to providing a review of the literature, we present a framework for understanding the heterogeneity of cognitive outcomes in this highly prevalent disorder. In addition, we discuss the relationship between LLD and dementia, and highlight the importance of regularly assessing cognitive functioning in older adults who present with depressive symptoms. If cognitive deficits are discovered during a neuropsychological assessment, we recommend referral to a geriatric psychiatrist or cognitive neurologist, for evaluation and treatment of the patient's symptoms.

Depressive symptoms and suicide risk in older adults: value placed on autonomy as a moderator for men but not women

Risk for suicide is elevated among older men. We examined whether value placed on autonomy amplifies the relation between depressive symptoms and suicide risk differently for older men and women. Participants were 98 community-dwelling older adults, M age 73.6 (SD = 8.6), 65.1% female, 93.1% White. Questionnaires measured suicide risk (SBQ-R), depressive symptoms (CESD), and value placed on autonomy (PSI-II autonomy). Among men, depressive symptoms were associated with suicide risk only when PSI-II autonomy was elevated. Among women, greater depressive symptoms were associated with suicide risk at all levels of PSI-II autonomy. Further research on attitudes toward autonomy is warranted.

Executive function and mortality in homebound elderly adults

OBJECTIVES

To determine the association between executive function and mortality in homebound elderly adults.

DESIGN

Longitudinal study.

SETTING

Four home care agencies in the Boston area.

PARTICIPANTS

Homebound adults aged 60 and older with 8-year follow-up for mortality (N=1,172).

MEASUREMENTS

Cognitive domains including executive, memory, and language functions were evaluated at baseline. Executive function was measured using the Trail-Making Test Part B (TMT B), and subjects were divided into four subgroups from lowest to highest TMT B score. The second cross-group analyses were used to compare those who were alive and those who had died. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine whether there was an association between TMT B scores and mortality.

RESULTS

At baseline, 436 (37.2%) homebound elderly adults had the highest TMT B scores (≥300), which indicated the slowest performance. At 8-year follow-up, 381 (32.5%) participants had died. Participants with the highest TMT B scores were more than twice as likely to have died as those with the lowest scores (0–99) (odds ratio=2.39, 95% confidence interval=1.27–4.52, P=.003) after adjusting for confounders including medical comorbidities related to death. The other cognitive domains, including memory and language, were not associated with mortality in the same model.

CONCLUSION

Many homebound elderly adults have multiple medical conditions, and executive function may be critical in their ability to manage their medical conditions and may affect the outcome of death.

Cognition in Late Life Depression: Treatment Considerations

Late life depression (LLD) frequently presents with cognitive impairment, and growing evidence suggests that these disease processes are "linked" in multiple ways. For some individuals, LLD may be a recurrence of a long-standing depressive illness, while for others it may be the leading symptom of a developing neuropathological disorder. Overall, studies investigating the relationship between treatment of LLD and improvement in cognitive functioning have yielded mixed results. Research suggests that a subset of individuals with LLD and cognitive dysfunction will experience an improvement in cognitive function after antidepressant treatment, though a significant proportion will continue to exhibit cognitive impairment following resolution of their depressive symptoms. From a treatment standpoint, it is critical to ensure that an individual's depressive symptoms have been treated to remission, measured by a standardized rating scale such as the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS). SSRI or SNRI monotherapy is often effective, and may be enhanced by employing an evidence-based psychotherapy such as Problem Solving Therapy (PST) or Interpersonal Therapy (IPT), modified to accommodate cognitive impairments that may be present. With respect to specific treatment of cognitive dysfunction, cognitive augmentation or training strategies can be helpful for some patients, and may be explored in combination with treatment of the primary depressive episode. While the introduction of a cholinesterase inhibitor (e.g. donepezil) may be considered, the potential benefit (modest improvement in cognition and functioning) must be weighed against an increased risk for worsening or recurrent depression. Finally, lifestyle factors-such as aerobic exercise, follow-up with a primary care physician for management of co-morbid medical illnesses, and regular participation in stimulating activities (such as through a senior center)-are important and should be included as part of the overall treatment plan.

Executive functioning in older adults with hoarding disorder

BACKGROUND

Hoarding disorder (HD) is a chronic and debilitating psychiatric condition. Midlife HD patients have been found to have neurocognitive impairment, particularly in areas of executive functioning, but the extent to which this is due to comorbid psychiatric disorders has not been clear.

AIMS/METHOD

The purpose of the present investigation was to examine executive functioning in geriatric HD patients without any comorbid Axis I disorders (n = 42) compared with a healthy older adult comparison group (n = 25). We hypothesized that older adults with HD would perform significantly worse on measures of executive functioning (Wisconsin Card Sort Task [Psychological Assessment Resources, Lutz, Florida, USA] ( Psychological Assessment Resources, 2003) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV digit span and letter-number sequencing tests [Pearson, San Antonio, TX, USA]).

RESULTS

Older adults with HD showed significant differences from healthy older controls in multiple aspects of executive functioning. Compared with healthy controls, older adults with HD committed significantly more total, non-perseverative errors and conceptual level responses on the Wisconsin Card Sort Task and had significantly worse performance on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV digit span and letter-number sequencing tests. Hoarding symptom severity was strongly correlated with executive dysfunction in the HD group.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with demographically-matched controls, older adults with HD have dysfunction in several domains of executive functioning including mental control, working memory, inhibition, and set shifting. Executive dysfunction is strongly correlated with hoarding severity and is not because of comorbid psychiatric disorders in HD patients. These results have broad clinical implications suggesting that executive functioning should be assessed and taken into consideration when developing intervention strategies for older adults with HD.

Depression Treatment Non-adherence and its Psychosocial Predictors: Differences between Young and Older Adults?

Depression is a common disease among young and older adults. Although it can be treated, non-adherence is very common among individuals of different ages. The aim of the present paper is to review and summarize research findings regarding depression among young and older adults, with a special focus on the phenomenon of treatment non-adherence among young and older adults with depression. The first section of the review focuses on describing the characteristics of depression in young and older adults. The second section focuses on treatment non-adherence of young and older adults, the prevalence of this phenomenon, and its consequences. The third section focuses on several factors (illness beliefs, treatment beliefs, self-stigma, and self-esteem) that were identified as having a significant association with treatment non-adherence of individuals with depression, with special attention focused on age differences. Results of the review of the literature reveal that research in the area of depression treatment non-adherence and its predictors among young and older adults has received, to date, very minor and limited attention. Thus, there is a need to expand the current body of knowledge and promote future interventions geared towards the unique characteristics of depression among young and older adults, in order to increase their treatment adherence.

Abnormal neural activity in partially remitted late-onset depression: an fMRI study of one-back working memory task

Only half of the geriatric patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) can reach full remission after treatment of half a year. This study was designed to examine the neural responses in the partial responders of late-onset MDD. We used 3-Tesla functional magnetic resonance imaging to assess the patterns of cerebral activation/deactivation in the performance of a one-back version of the n-back working memory task. We recruited 14 major depressive patients who reached partial remission after at least half a year of pharmacological intervention, compared with 14 non-depressive controls. There were no significant between-group differences in the demographical profiles and working memory performance, which was true for both accuracy and reaction time. Brain masks encompassing the neural responses of activation/deactivation were constructed from the non-depressive controls. The depressive group shows enhanced activities at left middle frontal and left parietal regions, and reduced deactivation at several temporal regions and left amygdala within the masks. Besides, the depressive group activates extra neural nodes at middle frontal and middle temporal regions outside the masks. The neural responses in the left amygdala are significantly correlated with the severity of depression and comorbid anxiety. The loss of deactivation in the left amygdala and the temporal areas in cognitive endeavor may be related to the refractoriness to treatment.

Patterns of reduced cortical thickness in late-life depression and relationship to psychotherapeutic response

OBJECTIVE

Cortical atrophy has been associated with late-life depression (LLD) and recent findings suggest that reduced right hemisphere cortical thickness is associated with familial risk for major depressive disorder, but cortical thickness abnormalities in LLD have not been explored. Furthermore, cortical atrophy has been posited as a contributor to poor antidepressant treatment response in LLD, but the impact of cortical thickness on psychotherapy response is unknown. This study was conducted to evaluate patterns of cortical thickness in LLD and in relation to psychotherapy treatment outcomes.

METHODS

Participants included 22 individuals with LLD and 12 age-matched comparison subjects. LLD participants completed 12 weeks of psychotherapy and treatment response was defined as a 50% reduction in depressive symptoms. All participants underwent magnetic resonance imaging of the brain, and cortical mapping of gray matter tissue thickness was calculated.

RESULTS

LLD individuals demonstrated thinner cortex than controls prominently in the right frontal, parietal, and temporal brain regions. Eleven participants (50%) exhibited positive psychotherapy response after 12 weeks of treatment. Psychotherapy nonresponders demonstrated thinner cortex in bilateral posterior cingulate and parahippocampal cortices, left paracentral, precuneus, cuneus, and insular cortices, and the right medial orbitofrontal and lateral occipital cortices relative to treatment responders.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest more distributed right hemisphere cortical abnormalities in LLD than have been previously reported. In addition, our findings suggest that reduced bilateral cortical thickness may be an important phenotypic marker of individuals at higher risk for poor response to psychotherapy.

Problem-solving versus cognitive restructuring of medically ill seniors with depression (PROMISE-D trial): study protocol and design

BACKGROUND

With an ageing population in most Western countries, people are living longer but often with one or more chronic physical health problems. Older people in physically poor health are at greater risk of developing clinical depression. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and Problem Solving Therapy (PST) have both been found to be efficacious in treating late-life depression, however patients with "multi-morbidity" (i.e. more than one chronic condition) are often excluded from these trials. The aim of this study is to compare the efficacy of CBT and PST in treating older adults who have one or more chronic physical health conditions and a diagnosable depressive disorder. This study will be the first to explicitly target the treatment of depression in older people in primary care settings presenting with a range of health problems using behavioural interventions.

METHODS/DESIGN

The PROMISE-D study is a randomised controlled trial of two evidence-based treatments for late-life major or minor depression for patients who also have at least one co-morbid chronic health problem. Participants will be randomised to two active interventions (PST or CBT) or enhanced treatment-as-usual (E-TAU). Primary outcomes will be depression diagnostic status and severity of depression (according to the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale and the Geriatric Depression Scale). Secondary outcomes will be anxiety severity, quality of life and health care utilisation. Assessments will be conducted by a researcher who remains blind to the patient's treatment allocation and will be conducted pre and post-treatment and at six and 12 months follow-up. Health care utilisation will be assessed throughout a two year period following entry to the trial. Executive function, rumination and emotion regulation will also be measured to determine the impact of these factors on treatment response in two treatment groups.

DISCUSSION

Multi-morbidity, the experience of two or more chronic health problems, is becoming an increasing problem internationally, particularly amongst the elderly. Evidence-based psychological treatments exist for late-life depression and these have been shown to be effective for participants with individual health problems and depression. However, there are no studies that have compared the two leading psychotherapies shown to be effective in the treatment of late-life depression. In addition, many trials of psychotherapy with older adults exclude those with multi-morbidity. Hence, this trial will confirm whether CBT and PST are efficacious in the treatment of depression in the context of complex medical needs and determine which of these two interventions is most efficacious.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ACTRN12612000854831.

Depression and cognitive impairment in older adults

Late life depression (LLD) is a heterogeneous illness with high rates of treatment resistance. Cognitive impairment is common in the context of LLD, and LLD may be a prodromal symptom and/or potentially a risk factor for dementia. This manuscript reviews the most recent research into the cognitive deficits associated with LLD and risk of conversion to dementia in the context of LLD. We discuss potential moderators and mediators of cognitive deficits in LLD, including demographic and clinical variables, in addition to brain structure and function. Potential interventions for cognitive symptoms of LLD are reviewed. We conclude with a discussion of the broader implications of what is now known about LLD, and how this might be applied toward improved prognosis and models for effective treatment.

Late-life depression: evidence-based treatment and promising new directions for research and clinical practice

As the population ages, successive cohorts of older adults will experience depressive disorders. Late-life depression (LLD) carries additional risk for suicide, medical comorbidity, disability, and family caregiving burden. Although response and remission rates to pharmacotherapy and electroconvulsive therapy are comparable with those in midlife depression, relapse rates are higher, underscoring the challenge to achieve and maintain wellness. This article reviews the evidence base for LLD treatment options and provides an analysis of treatment options for difficult-to-treat LLD variants (eg, psychotic depression, vascular depression). Treatment algorithms are also reviewed based on predictors of response and promising novel treatment options.

Problem-solving therapy and supportive therapy in older adults with major depression and executive dysfunction: effect on disability

CONTEXT

Older patients with depression and executive dysfunction represent a population with significant disability and a high likelihood of failing pharmacotherapy.

OBJECTIVES

To examine whether problem-solving therapy (PST) reduces disability more than does supportive therapy (ST) in older patients with depression and executive dysfunction and whether this effect is mediated by improvement in depressive symptoms.

DESIGN

Randomized controlled trial.

SETTING

Weill Cornell Medical College and University of California at San Francisco.

PARTICIPANTS

Adults (aged >59 years) with major depression and executive dysfunction recruited between December 2002 and November 2007 and followed up for 36 weeks. Intervention Twelve sessions of PST modified for older depressed adults with executive impairment or ST. Main Outcome Measure Disability as quantified using the 12-item World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule II.

RESULTS

Of 653 individuals referred to this study, 221 met the inclusion criteria and were randomized to receive PST or ST. Both PST and ST led to comparable improvement in disability in the first 6 weeks of treatment, but a more prominent reduction was noted in PST participants at weeks 9 and 12. The difference between PST and ST was greater in patients with greater cognitive impairment and more previous episodes. Reduction in disability paralleled reduction in depressive symptoms. The therapeutic advantage of PST over ST in reducing depression was, in part, due to greater reduction in disability by PST. Although disability increased during the 24 weeks after the end of treatment, the advantage of PST over ST was retained.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that PST is more effective than ST in reducing disability in older patients with major depression and executive dysfunction, and its benefits were retained after the end of treatment. The clinical value of this finding is that PST may be a treatment alternative in an older patient population likely to be resistant to pharmacotherapy.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00052091.

Problem-solving therapy and supportive therapy in older adults with major depression and executive dysfunction

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to determine whether problem-solving therapy is an effective treatment in older patients with depression and executive dysfunction, a population likely to be resistant to antidepressant drugs.

METHOD

Participants were adults age 60 and older with major depression and executive dysfunction. Problem-solving therapy was modified to be accessible to this population. Participants were randomly assigned to 12 weekly sessions of problem-solving therapy or supportive therapy and assessed at weeks 3, 6, 9, and 12.

RESULTS

Of the 653 individuals referred for this study, 221 met selection criteria and were enrolled in the study. Reduction of depressive symptom severity was comparable for the two treatment groups during the first 6 weeks of treatment, but at weeks 9 and 12 the problem-solving therapy group had a greater reduction in symptom severity, a greater response rate, and a greater remission rate than the supportive therapy group (response rates at week 9: 47.1% and 29.3%; at week 12:56.7% and 34.0%; remission rates at week 9: 37.9% and 21.7%; at week 12: 45.6% and 27.8%). Problem-solving therapy yielded one additional response or remission over supportive therapy for every 4.4-5.6 patients by the end of the trial.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that problem-solving therapy is effective in reducing depressive symptoms and leading to treatment response and remission in a considerable number of older patients with major depression and executive dysfunction. The clinical value of this finding is that problem-solving therapy may be a treatment alternative in an older patient population likely to be resistant to pharmacotherapy.

Adapting problem-solving therapy for depressed older adults in methadone maintenance treatment

Late-life depression is prevalent in older adults who are dependent on opiates. Depressive disorders among opiate abusers have detrimental effects on their well-being and ability to refrain from illegal drugs. There are numerous barriers to the provision of appropriate mental health care to older adults receiving methadone maintenance treatment. This article focuses on problem-solving therapy (PST) and presents evidence that PST may be a promising nonpharmacological treatment for older methadone clients with comorbid depressive disorders that can be applied within the staffing and resource limits of methadone maintenance treatment facilities. The advantages of PST relative to other behavioral therapies for this population are based on evidence that PST is less cognitively demanding for an older adult population with mood and substance use disorders. A properly modified PST for an older adult substance-dependent population with subsyndromal or diagnosed depression may be a viable option for methadone maintenance programs with limited resources.

Innovative psychosocial approaches in old age psychiatry

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To identify and discuss recent research studies that propose innovative psychosocial interventions in old age psychiatry.

RECENT FINDINGS

Studies have shown that cognitive training research for healthy elderly has advanced in several ways, particularly in the refinement of study design and methodology. Studies have included larger samples and longer training protocols. Interestingly, new research has shown changes in biological markers associated with learning and memory after cognitive training. Among mild cognitive impairment patients, results have demonstrated that they benefit from interventions displaying cognitive plasticity.Rehabilitation studies involving dementia patients have suggested the efficacy of combined treatment approaches, and light and music therapies have shown promising effects. For psychiatric disorders, innovations have included improvements in well known techniques such as cognitive behavior therapy, studies in subpopulations with comorbidities, as well as the use of new computer-aided resources.

SUMMARY

Research evidence on innovative interventions in old age psychiatry suggests that this exciting field is moving forward by means of methodological refinements and testing of creative new ideas.

ROBERTE. Research advances in geriatric depression

Technical advances have facilitated the exploration of factors related to geriatric depression and have helped generate novel biological and psychosocial treatment approaches. This review summarizes the main advancements in epidemiology, clinical presentation and course, genetics, and other areas of biological research. Treatment interventions outlined in this paper include electroconvulsive therapy, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, magnetic seizure therapy, vagus nerve stimulation, deep brain stimulatn, depression prophylaxis, multidisciplinary approaches to depression treatment, and psychotherapy. Forms of psychotherapy for geriatric depression summarized include interpersonal psychotherapy, supportive psychotherapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, problem-solving therapy, and ecosystem-focused therapy. Neuroimaging techniques based on magnetic resonance imaging are discussed briefly, including volumetric brain studies, diffusion tensor imaging, fractional anisotropy, fiber tractography, magnetization transfer imaging, and blood-oxygenation-level-dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging. Finally, treatment effectiveness is addressed in a discussion of new models to improve access to and quality of care offered in the community.

A Profile of Patients Seen by Fly-in Clinical Psychologists at a Non-Urban Facility and Implications for Training and Future Services

With the serious mental health services deficits in non-urban communities, there is a need to evolve alternative approaches to facilitate access to care. Considering clinical psychology services are largely concentrated in the metropolitan areas, we describe a relatively unusual approach to providing services in an outlying area. The majority of patients attended to in this service are children and adolescents, and most patients have less than secondary-school education. The commonest diagnoses are mental retardation, mood and anxiety disorders, with the last two conditions mainly found in scholars and the unemployed. Fractured families are almost the norm, with four out of five children living with only one or no parents. Over half the patients are from families receiving a state grant. The majority of patients travel great distances to get to the clinical psychologists. The findings point to the need for clinical psychologists to seriously consider developing newer models for providing care, and the need for working outside of traditional approaches.