Targeted delivery of microRNA-199a-3p using self-assembled dipeptide nanoparticles efficiently reduces hepatocellular carcinoma in mice

Microneedles loaded with l-arginine-modified puerarin-derived carbon nanoparticles improved treatment of diabetic wound via photothermal and nitric oxide-based gas therapy

Due to the high-glucose environment of diabetic wounds, a significant proliferation of bacteria at wound site can occur, resulting in an inflammatory response that extends the inflammatory phase of the wound, thereby complicating the healing process in diabetic wounds. Eliminating the proliferation of bacteria plays a crucial role in promoting the healing of diabetic wounds. Under near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation, l-arginine (L-Arg) -modified natural product puerarin (Pue)-derived carbon nanoparticles (l-Arg-CNP) not only exhibited excellent photothermal effects but also produced reactive oxygen species (ROS) to react with l-Arg for producing Nitric Oxide (NO), thus contributing to a synergistic antibacterial therapy in diabetic wound. At the same time, l-Arg-CNP retained Pue's original characteristics to promote cell proliferation and angiogenesis. Following the loading of l-Arg-CNP into microneedle patches (l-Arg-CNP@MN), it can deliver them into the deeper wound, effectively killing bacteria, reducing inflammatory infiltration, and promoting neovascularization at the wound site. It offers an effective therapeutic strategy for treating diabetic wound healing.

RNA nanomedicine in liver diseases

The remarkable impact of RNA nanomedicine during the COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated the expansive therapeutic potential of this field in diverse disease contexts. In recent years, RNA nanomedicine targeting the liver has been paradigm-shifting in the management of metabolic diseases such as hyperoxaluria and amyloidosis. RNA nanomedicine has significant potential in the management of liver diseases, where optimal management would benefit from targeted delivery, doses titrated to liver metabolism, and personalized therapy based on the specific site of interest. In this review, we discuss in-depth the different types of RNA and nanocarriers used for liver targeting along with their specific applications in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, liver fibrosis, and liver cancers. We further highlight the strategies for cell-specific delivery and future perspectives in this field of research with the emergence of small activating RNA, circular RNA, and RNA base editing approaches.

Engineered nanoparticles for imaging and targeted drug delivery in hepatocellular carcinoma

Liver cancer, notably hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), poses a significant global health burden due to its high fatality rates. Conventional antitumor medications face challenges, including poor targeting, high toxicity, and drug resistance, leading to suboptimal clinical outcomes. This review focused on nanoparticle use in diagnosing and delivering medication for HCC, aiming to advance the development of nanomedicines for improved treatment outcomes. As an emerging frontier science and technology, nanotechnology has shown great potential, especially in precision medicine and personalized treatment. The success of nanosystems is attributable to their smaller size, biocompatibility, selective tumor accumulation, and lower toxicity. Nanoparticles, as a central part of nanotechnology innovation, have emerged in the field of medical diagnostics and therapeutics to overcome the various limitations of conventional chemotherapy, thus offering promising applications for improved selectivity, earlier and more precise diagnosis of cancers, personalized treatment, and overcoming drug resistance. Nanoparticles play a crucial role in drug delivery and imaging of HCC, with the body acting as a delivery system to target and deliver drugs or diagnostic reagents to specific organs or tissues, helping to accurately diagnose and target therapies while minimizing damage to healthy tissues. They protect drugs from early degradation and increase their biological half-life.

Hepatocellular carcinoma: signaling pathways and therapeutic advances

Liver cancer represents a major global health concern, with projections indicating that the number of new cases could surpass 1 million annually by 2025. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) constitutes around 90% of liver cancer cases and is primarily linked to factors incluidng aflatoxin, hepatitis B (HBV) and C (HCV), and metabolic disorders. There are no obvious symptoms in the early stage of HCC, which often leads to delays in diagnosis. Therefore, HCC patients usually present with tumors in advanced and incurable stages. Several signaling pathways are dis-regulated in HCC and cause uncontrolled cell propagation, metastasis, and recurrence of HCC. Beyond the frequently altered and therapeutically targeted receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) pathways in HCC, pathways involved in cell differentiation, telomere regulation, epigenetic modification and stress response also provide therapeutic potential. Investigating the key signaling pathways and their inhibitors is pivotal for achieving therapeutic advancements in the management of HCC. At present, the primary therapeutic approaches for advanced HCC are tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI), immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI), and combination regimens. New trials are investigating combination therapies involving ICIs and TKIs or anti-VEGF (endothelial growth factor) therapies, as well as combinations of two immunotherapy regimens. The outcomes of these trials are expected to revolutionize HCC management across all stages. Here, we provide here a comprehensive review of cellular signaling pathways, their therapeutic potential, evidence derived from late-stage clinical trials in HCC and discuss the concepts underlying earlier clinical trials, biomarker identification, and the development of more effective therapeutics for HCC.

Recent advances in nano-based drug delivery systems for treatment of liver cancer

Liver cancer is one of the aggressive primary tumors as evident by high rate of incidence and mortality. Conventional treatments (e.g. chemotherapy) suffer from various drawbacks including wide drug distribution, low localized drug concentration, and severe off-site toxicity. Therefore, they cannot satisfy the mounting need for safe and efficient cancer therapeutics, and alternative novel strategies are needed. Nano-based drug delivery systems (NDDSs) are among these novel approaches that can improve the overall therapeutic outcomes. NDDSs are designed to encapsulate drug molecules and target them specifically to liver cancer. Thus, NDDSs can selectively deliver therapeutic agents to the tumor cells and avoid distribution to off-target sites which should improve the safety profile of the active agents. Nonetheless, NDDSs should be well designed, in terms of the preparing materials, nanocarriers structure, and the targeting strategy, in order to accomplish these objectives. This review discusses the latest advances of NDDSs for cancer therapy with emphasis on the aforementioned essential design components. The review also entails the challenges associated with the clinical translation of NDDSs, and the future perspectives towards next-generation NDDSs.

Recent Review on Biological Barriers and Host-Material Interfaces in Precision Drug Delivery: Advancement in Biomaterial Engineering for Better Treatment Therapies

Preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated that precision therapy has a broad variety of treatment applications, making it an interesting research topic with exciting potential in numerous sectors. However, major obstacles, such as inefficient and unsafe delivery systems and severe side effects, have impeded the widespread use of precision medicine. The purpose of drug delivery systems (DDSs) is to regulate the time and place of drug release and action. They aid in enhancing the equilibrium between medicinal efficacy on target and hazardous side effects off target. One promising approach is biomaterial-assisted biotherapy, which takes advantage of biomaterials' special capabilities, such as high biocompatibility and bioactive characteristics. When administered via different routes, drug molecules deal with biological barriers; DDSs help them overcome these hurdles. With their adaptable features and ample packing capacity, biomaterial-based delivery systems allow for the targeted, localised, and prolonged release of medications. Additionally, they are being investigated more and more for the purpose of controlling the interface between the host tissue and implanted biomedical materials. This review discusses innovative nanoparticle designs for precision and non-personalised applications to improve precision therapies. We prioritised nanoparticle design trends that address heterogeneous delivery barriers, because we believe intelligent nanoparticle design can improve patient outcomes by enabling precision designs and improving general delivery efficacy. We additionally reviewed the most recent literature on biomaterials used in biotherapy and vaccine development, covering drug delivery, stem cell therapy, gene therapy, and other similar fields; we have also addressed the difficulties and future potential of biomaterial-assisted biotherapies.

Targeted delivery strategies: The interactions and applications of nanoparticles in liver diseases

In recent years, nanoparticles have been broadly utilized in various drugs delivery formulations. Nanodelivery systems have shown promise in solving problems associated with the distribution of hydrophobic drugs and have promoted the accumulation of nanomedicines in the circulation or in organs. However, the injection dose of nanoparticles (NPs) is much greater than that needed by diseased tissues or organs. In other words, most of the NPs are localized off-target and do not reach the desired tissue or organs. With the rapid development of biodegradable and biosafety nanomaterials, the nanovectors represent assurance of safety. However, the off-target effects also induce concerns about the application of NPs, especially in the delivery of gene editing tools. Therefore, a complete understanding of the biological responses to NPs in the body will clearly guide the design of targeted delivery of NPs. The different properties of various nanodelivery systems may induce diverse interactions between carriers and organs. In this review, we describe the relationship between the liver, the most influenced organ of systemic administration of NPs, and targeted delivery nanoplatforms. Various transport vehicles have adopted multiple delivery strategies for the targeted delivery to the cells in the homeostasis liver and in diseased liver. Additionally, nanodelivery systems provide a novel strategy for treating incurable diseases. The appearance of a targeted delivery has profoundly improved the application of NPs to liver diseases.

Targeting metabolic reprogramming in hepatocellular carcinoma to overcome therapeutic resistance: A comprehensive review

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) poses a heavy burden on human health with high morbidity and mortality rates. Systematic therapy is crucial for advanced and mid-term HCC, but faces a significant challenge from therapeutic resistance, weakening drug effectiveness. Metabolic reprogramming has gained attention as a key contributor to therapeutic resistance. Cells change their metabolism to meet energy demands, adapt to growth needs, or resist environmental pressures. Understanding key enzyme expression patterns and metabolic pathway interactions is vital to comprehend HCC occurrence, development, and treatment resistance. Exploring metabolic enzyme reprogramming and pathways is essential to identify breakthrough points for HCC treatment. Targeting metabolic enzymes with inhibitors is key to addressing these points. Inhibitors, combined with systemic therapeutic drugs, can alleviate resistance, prolong overall survival for advanced HCC, and offer mid-term HCC patients a chance for radical resection. Advances in metabolic research methods, from genomics to metabolomics and cells to organoids, help build the HCC metabolic reprogramming network. Recent progress in biomaterials and nanotechnology impacts drug targeting and effectiveness, providing new solutions for systemic therapeutic drug resistance. This review focuses on metabolic enzyme changes, pathway interactions, enzyme inhibitors, research methods, and drug delivery targeting metabolic reprogramming, offering valuable references for metabolic approaches to HCC treatment.

miR-199a-3p suppresses neuroinflammation by directly targeting MyD88 in a mouse model of bone cancer pain

AIMS

Pain is a profoundly debilitating symptom in cancer patients, leading to disability, immobility, and a marked decline in their quality of life. This study aimed to investigate the potential roles of miR-199a-3p in a murine model of bone cancer pain induced by tumor cell implantation in the medullary cavity of the femur.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We assessed pain-related behaviors, including the paw withdrawal mechanical threshold (PWMT) and the number of spontaneous flinches (NSF). To investigate miRNA expression and its targets in astrocytes, we employed a combination of RNA-seq analysis, qRT-PCR, Western blotting, EdU, TUNEL, ChIP, ELISA, and luciferase reporter assays in mice (C3H/HeJ) with bone cancer pain and control groups.

KEY FINDINGS

On days 10, 14, 21, and 28 post-surgery, we observed significant differences in PWTL, PWMT, and NSF when compared to the sham group (P < 0.001). qRT-PCR assays and miRNA sequencing results confirmed reduced miR-199a-3p expression in astrocytes of mice with bone cancer pain. Gain- and loss-of-function experiments demonstrated that miR-199a-3p suppressed astrocyte activation and the expression of inflammatory cytokines. In vitro investigations revealed that miR-199a-3p mimics reduced the levels of inflammatory factors in astrocytes and MyD88/NF-κB proteins. Furthermore, treatment with a miR-199a-3p agonist resulted in reduced expression of MyD88, TAK1, p-p65, and inflammatory mediators, along with decreased astrocyte activation in the spinal cord.

SIGNIFICANCE

Collectively, these findings demonstrate that upregulation of miR-199a-3p may offer a therapeutic avenue for mitigating bone cancer pain in mice by suppressing neuroinflammation and inhibiting the MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Targeting EGFR/PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) poses a significant global health concern, with its incidence steadily increasing. The development of HCC is a multifaceted, multi-step process involving alterations in various signaling cascades. In recent years, significant progress has been made in understanding the molecular signaling pathways that play central roles in hepatocarcinogenesis. In particular, the EGFR/PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in HCC has garnered renewed attention from both basic and clinical researchers. Preclinical studies in vitro and in vivo have shown the effectiveness of targeting the key components of this signaling pathway in human HCC cells. Thus, targeting these signaling pathways with small molecule inhibitors holds promise as a potential therapeutic option for patients with HCC. In this review, we explore recent advancements in understanding the role of the EGFR/PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in HCC and assess the effectiveness of targeting this signaling cascade as a potential strategy for HCC therapy based on preclinical studies.

Hepatic-Targeted Nano-enzyme with Resveratrol Loading for Precise Relief of Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is characterized by massive lipid deposition in hepatocytes and is often associated with hepatic inflammation and other severe metabolic syndromes. The intervention of NASH can prevent its further progression into hepatocarcinoma. In this study we have successfully constructed liver-targeted Ce-based hollow mesoporous nanocarriers loaded with bioactive drugs. This may provide an effective approach for eliminating NASH. Liver-section-specific targeting was realized by covalently linked galactose (Gal), which can be specifically recognized by receptors in the membranes of hepatocytes. Meanwhile, resveratrol (Res), a drug used to treat NASH, was efficiently loaded into the pores and cavity of CeO₂ (Res@H-CeO₂ -Gal). In steatotic HepG2 cells (free fatty acid induction), this nanosystem was found to enhance cellular Res internalization for improved anti-lipogenesis activity. In mice with NASH, Res@H-CeO₂ -Gal increased Res delivery to liver sections for a reduction in lipid accumulation and enhanced anti-inflammatory activity from the antioxidant capacity of Ce-based nanocarriers. This effectively recovered NASH mice to the normal state. These findings show that the hepatic targeting and Res delivery nanoplatform could act as a safe and promising strategy for the elimination of NASH and other liver diseases.

Dipeptide nanostructures: Synthesis, interactions, advantages and biomedical applications

Short peptides are important in the design of self-assembled materials due to their versatility and flexibility. Self-assembled dipeptides, a group of peptide nanostructures, have highly attractive uses in the field of biomedicine. Recently these materials have proved to be important nanostructures because of their biocompatibility, low-cost and simplicity of synthesis, functionality/easy tunability and nano dimensions. Although there are different studies on peptide and protein-based nanostructures, more information about self-assembled nanostructures for dipeptides is still required to discover the advantages, challenges, importance, synthesis, interactions, and applications. This review describes and discusses the self-assembled dipeptide nanostructures especially for biomedical applications.

Biomaterial-assisted biotherapy: A brief review of biomaterials used in drug delivery, vaccine development, gene therapy, and stem cell therapy

Biotherapy has recently become a hotspot research topic with encouraging prospects in various fields due to a wide range of treatments applications, as demonstrated in preclinical and clinical studies. However, the broad applications of biotherapy have been limited by critical challenges, including the lack of safe and efficient delivery systems and serious side effects. Due to the unique potentials of biomaterials, such as good biocompatibility and bioactive properties, biomaterial-assisted biotherapy has been demonstrated to be an attractive strategy. The biomaterial-based delivery systems possess sufficient packaging capacity and versatile functions, enabling a sustained and localized release of drugs at the target sites. Furthermore, the biomaterials can provide a niche with specific extracellular conditions for the proliferation, differentiation, attachment, and migration of stem cells, leading to tissue regeneration. In this review, the state-of-the-art studies on the applications of biomaterials in biotherapy, including drug delivery, vaccine development, gene therapy, and stem cell therapy, have been summarized. The challenges and an outlook of biomaterial-assisted biotherapies have also been discussed.

Nanotechnology strategies for hepatocellular carcinoma diagnosis and treatment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a common malignancy threatening human health, and existing diagnostic and therapeutic techniques are facing great challenges. In the last decade or so, nanotechnology has been developed and improved for tumor diagnosis and treatment. For example, nano-intravenous injections have been approved for malignant perivascular epithelioid cell tumors. This article provides a comprehensive review of the applications of nanotechnology in HCC in recent years: (I) in radiological imaging, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), fluorescence imaging (FMI) and multimodality imaging. (II) For diagnostic applications in HCC serum markers. (III) As embolic agents in transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) or directly as therapeutic drugs. (IV) For application in photothermal therapy and photodynamic therapy. (V) As carriers of chemotherapeutic drugs, targeted drugs, and natural plant drugs. (VI) For application in gene and immunotherapy. Compared with the traditional methods for diagnosis and treatment of HCC, nanoparticles have high sensitivity, reduce drug toxicity and have a long duration of action, and can also be combined with photothermal and photodynamic multimodal combination therapy. These summaries provide insights for the further development of nanotechnology applications in HCC.

miR-199a-3p increases the anti-tumor activity of palbociclib in liver cancer models

Palbociclib is in early-stage clinical testing in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Here, we investigated whether the anti-tumor activity of palbociclib, which prevents the CDK4/6-mediated phosphorylation of RB1 but simultaneously activates AKT signaling, could be improved by its combination with a PI3K/AKT/mTOR inhibitor in liver cancer models. The selective pan-AKT inhibitor, MK-2206, or the microRNA-199a-3p were tested in combination with palbociclib in HCC cell lines and in the TG221 HCC transgenic mouse model. The combination palbociclib/MK-2206 was highly effective, but too toxic to be tolerated by mice. Conversely, the combination miR-199a-3p mimics/palbociclib not only induced a complete or partial regression of tumor lesions, but was also well tolerated. After 3 weeks of treatment, the combination produced a significant reduction in number and size of tumor nodules in comparison with palbociclib or miR-199a-3p mimics used as single agents. Moreover, we also reported the efficacy of this combination against sorafenib-resistant cells in vitro and in vivo. At the molecular level, the combination caused the simultaneous decrease of the phosphorylation of both RB1 and of AKT. Our findings provide pre-clinical evidence for the efficacy of the combination miR-199a-3p/palbociclib as anti-HCC treatment or as a new approach to overcome sorafenib resistance.

Involvement of microRNAs and their potential diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic role in hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) accounts for 85%-90% of primary liver cancer. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression by targeting the 3'UTR of mRNA. Abnormal expression and regulation of miRNAs are involved in the occurrence and progression of HCC, and miRNAs can also play a role in the diagnosis and treatment of HCC as oncogenes or tumor suppressors.

METHODS

In the past decades, a large number of studies have shown that miRNAs play an essential regulatory role in HCC and have potential as biomarkers for HCC. We reviewed the literature to summarize these studies.

RESULTS

By reviewing the literature, we retrospected the roles of miRNAs in the development, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of HCC, and put forward prospects for the further research on miRNAs in the precision treatment of HCC.

CONCLUSION

MicroRNAs are important regulators and biomarkers in the occurrence, progression, outcome, and treatment of HCC, and can provide new targets and strategies for improving the therapeutic effect of HCC.

Chemically Modified Dipeptide Based Hydrogel Supports Three-Dimensional Growth and Functions of Primary Hepatocytes

A huge shortage of organ donors, particularly in the case of liver, has necessitated the development of alternative therapeutic strategies. Primary hepatocytes (pHCs) transplantation has made a considerable transition from bench to bedside, but the short-term viability and functionality of pHCs in in vitro limit their use for clinical applications. Different cell culture strategies are required to maintain the proliferation of pHCs for extended periods. Here, we described the formation of a hybrid scaffold based on a modified dipeptide for the culture of pHCs. First, the dipeptide (Dp), isoleucine-α,β-dehydrophenylalanine (IΔF) was synthesized, purified, and fully characterized. IΔF readily formed a highly stable hydrogel, which was also characterized by CD, TEM, and thioflavin T assay. The addition of soluble liver extracellular matrix (sLEM) to the dipeptide readily formed a hybrid scaffold that was characterized by TEM, and its mechanical strength was determined by rheology experiments. The hybrid scaffold was translucent, biocompatible, and proteolytically stable and, with its mechanical strength, closely mimicked that of the native liver. LEM1-Dp matrix exhibited high biocompatibility in the readily available adherent liver cell line Huh7 and primary rat hepatocyte cells (pHCs). pHCs cultured on LEM1-Dp matrix also maintained significantly higher cell viability and an escalated expression of markers related to the hepatocytes such as albumin as compared to that observed in cells cultured on collagen type I (Col I)-coated substrate plate (col-TCTP). Z-stacking of confocal laser microscopy's volume view clearly indicated pHCs seeded on top of the hydrogel matrix migrated toward the Z direction showing 3D growth. Our results indicated that low molecular weight dipeptide hydrogel along with sLEM can resemble biomimetic 3D-like microenvironments for improved pHCs proliferation, differentiation, and function. This hybrid scaffold is also easy to scale up, which makes it suitable for several downstream applications of hepatocytes, including drug development, pHCs transplantation, and liver regeneration.

Endothelial miR-199a-3p regulating cell adhesion molecules by targeting mTOR signaling during inflammation

BACKGROUND

Adherence of monocytes to endothelial cells is the initial stage for development of coronary artery disease (CAD). MiRNAs have been reported to participate in this process by regulating the expression of cell adhesion molecules. This study aimed to explore the function of miR-199a-3p in endothelial inflammation and adhesion.

METHODS

We assessed the expression of miR-199a-3p in CAD patients and ApoE^-/- mice. The relationship between miR-199a-3p level and endothelial inflammation and adhesion was examined. ELISA was used to test the level of IL-6 and IL-8. Dual luciferase reporter assay was used to evaluate the binding between miR-199a-3p and mTOR.

RESULTS

A decreased expression of miR-199a-3p was observed in the PBMCs and plasma of CAD patients, aorta of ApoE^-/- mice and inflammatory HUVECs. MiR-199a-3p significantly suppressed the expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokine (IL-6, IL-8), endothelial adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, VCAM-1) and monocyte-endothelial cells interaction. MiR-199a-3p directly targeted and repressed mTOR, and its suppression effect on ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 was abolished by mTOR inhibitor rapamycin, and rescued by mTOR activator MHY1485. Overexpression of miR-199a-3p promoted autophagy in HUVECs and inhibiting autophagy by chloroquine attenuated the effect of miR-199a-3p on ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 expression. Inhibition of autophagy promoted endothelial adhesion molecule expression and monocyte-EC interaction.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggested that miR-199a-3p suppressed endothelial inflammation and adhesion by targeting mTOR signaling and increasing autophagy. Our findings point to an important role for miR-199a-3p in the early stage of cardiovascular disease.

Construction of nanocarriers based on nucleic acids and their application in nanobiology delivery systems

In recent years, nanocarriers based on nucleic acids (NCNAs) have emerged as powerful and novel nanocarriers that are able to meet the demand for cancer cell-specific targeting. Functional dynamics analysis revealed good biocompatibility, low toxicity, and programmable structures, and their advantages include controllable size and modifiability. The development of novel hybrids has focused on the distinct roles of biosensing, drug and gene delivery, vaccine transport, photosensitization, counteracting drug resistance and functioning as carriers and logic gates. This review is divided into three parts: (1) DNA nanocarriers, (2) RNA nanocarriers, and (3) DNA/RNA hybrid nanocarriers and their biological applications. We also provide perspectives on possible future directions for growth in this field.

Effect of chromogranin A N-terminal fragment vasostatin-1 nano-carrier transfection on abdominal aortic aneurysm formation

The effects of transfection of N-terminal fragment of chromogranin A Vasostatin-1 (VS-1) nanocarriers on formation of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) were discussed, and its mechanism was analyzed. Nanoparticles containing VS-1 genes were prepared by emulsion solvent evaporation method, and property of nanoparticles was examined. A total of 30 male SD rats were divided randomly into sham group (normal saline), AAA group (Type I porcine pancreatic elastase), and VS-1 group (Type I porcine pancreatic elastase+VS-1 suspension liquid). The diameter dilation of rats was measured, abdominal aortic morphology was observed by HE staining, and levels of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) were examined by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. Correlation between AMPK as well as mTOR and diameter dilation was analyzed by Pearson correlation. VS-1 genes in VS-1 nanoparticles were 4.51% and coating efficiency of genes was 88%. Compared with rats in sham group, diameter dilation of rats in AAA group increased, damage of abdominal aorta in rats was obvious, p-AMPK decreased, and p-mTOR increased in AAA group. Compared with AAA group, diameter dilation of rats in VS-1 group decreased, abdominal aorta of rats was improved, p-AMPK increased, and p-mTOR decreased. The comparison of all above indicators had statistical meaning (P < 0.05). p-AMPK and p-mTOR were negatively (r = -0.9150 and P = 0.006) and positively correlated with the diameter dilation (r = -0.9206 and P = 0.001). VS-1 nanoparticles could inhibit the formation of AAA, which might be related to the activation of AMPK/mTOR signal path.

Role of miRNAs In Cancer Diagnostics And Therapy: A Recent Update

The discovery of miRNAs has been one of the revolutionary developments and has led to the advent of new diagnostic and therapeutic opportunities for the management of cancer. In this regard, miRNA dysregulation has been shown to play a critical role in various stages of tumorigenesis, including tumor invasion, metastasis as well as angiogenesis. Therefore, miRNA profiling can provide accurate fingerprints for the development of diagnostic and therapeutic platforms. This review discusses the recent discoveries of miRNA-based tools for early detection of cancer as well as disease monitoring in cancers that are common, like breast, lung, hepatic, colorectal, oral and brain cancer. Based on the involvement of miRNA in different cancers as oncogenic miRNA or tumor suppressor miRNA, the treatment with miRNA inhibitors or mimics is recommended. However, the stability and targeted delivery of miRNA remain the major limitations of miRNA delivery. In relation to this, several nanoparticle-based delivery systems have been reported which have effectively delivered the miRNA mimics or inhibitors and showed the potential for transforming these advanced delivery systems from bench to bedside in the treatment of cancer metastasis and chemoresistance. Based on this, we attempted to uncover recently reported advanced nanotherapeutic approaches to deliver the miRNAs in the management of different cancers.

Delivery of a Cancer-Testis Antigen-Derived Peptide Using Conformationally Restricted Dipeptide-Based Self-Assembled Nanotubes

Use of tumor-associated antigens for cancer immunotherapy is limited due to their poor in vivo stability and low cellular uptake. Delivery of antigenic peptides using synthetic polymer-based nanostructures has been actively pursued but with limited success. Peptide-based nanostructures hold much promise as delivery vehicles due to their easy design and synthesis and inherent biocompatibility. Here, we report self-assembly of a dipeptide containing a non-natural amino acid, α,β-dehydrophenylalanine (ΔF), into nanotubes, which efficiently entrapped a MAGE-3-derived peptide (M3). M3 entrapped in F-ΔF nanotubes was more stable to a nonspecific protease treatment and both F-ΔF and F-ΔF-M3 showed no cellular toxicity for four cancerous and noncancerous cell lines used. F-ΔF-M3 showed significantly higher cellular uptake in RAW 267.4 macrophage cells compared to M3 alone and also induced in vitro maturation of dendritic cells (DCs). Immunization of mice with F-ΔF-M3 selected a higher number of IFN-γ secreting CD8⁺ T cells and CD4⁺ T compared to M3 alone. On day 21, a tumor growth inhibition ratio (TGI, %) of 41% was observed in a murine melanoma model. These results indicate that F-ΔF nanotubes are highly biocompatible, efficiently delivered M3 to generate cytotoxic T lymphocytes responses, and able to protect M3 from degradation under in vivo conditions. The F-ΔF dipeptide-based nanotubes may be considered as a good platform for further development as delivery agents.

Hepatic Cancer Stem Cells: Molecular Mechanisms, Therapeutic Implications, and Circulating Biomarkers

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the deadliest cancers. HCC is associated with multiple risk factors and is characterized by a marked tumor heterogeneity that makes its molecular classification difficult to apply in the clinics. The lack of circulating biomarkers for the diagnosis, prognosis, and prediction of response to treatments further undermines the possibility of developing personalized therapies. Accumulating evidence affirms the involvement of cancer stem cells (CSCs) in tumor heterogeneity, recurrence, and drug resistance. Owing to the contribution of CSCs to treatment failure, there is an urgent need to develop novel therapeutic strategies targeting, not only the tumor bulk, but also the CSC subpopulation. Clarification of the molecular mechanisms influencing CSC properties, and the identification of their functional roles in tumor progression, may facilitate the discovery of novel CSC-based therapeutic targets to be used alone, or in combination with current anticancer agents, for the treatment of HCC. Here, we review the driving forces behind the regulation of liver CSCs and their therapeutic implications. Additionally, we provide data on their possible exploitation as prognostic and predictive biomarkers in patients with HCC.

Clinical Applications of MicroRNAs in Acute Myeloid Leukemia: A Mini-Review

MicroRNAs (miRs) are short non-coding RNAs, typically 18-25 nucleotides in length, that are critically important, through their direct effects on target mRNAs, in a variety of cellular processes including cell differentiation, proliferation and survival. Dysregulated miR expression has been identified in numerous cancer types including acute myeloid leukemia (AML). From a clinical standpoint, several miRs have been shown to associate with prognosis in AML patients. Furthermore, they also carry the potential to be used as biomarkers and to inform medical decision making. In addition, several preclinical studies have provided strong rationale to develop novel therapeutic strategies to target miRs in AML. This review will focus on potential clinical applications of miRs in adult AML and will discuss unique miR signatures in specific AML subtypes, their role in prognostication and response to therapy, as well as miRs that are promising therapeutic targets and ongoing clinical trials directed towards targeting clinically relevant miRs in AML that could allow for improvements in current treatment strategies.

The use of nanotechnology to combat liver cancer: Progress and perspectives

Liver cancer is one of the most common cancers worldwide and is also one of the most difficult cancers to treat, resulting in almost one million deaths per year, and the danger of this cancer is compounded when the tumor is nonresectable. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of liver cancer and has the third highest mortality rate worldwide. Considering the morbid statistics surrounding this cancer it is a popular research topic to target for better therapy practices. This review summarizes the role of nanotechnology in these endeavors. Nanoparticles (NPs) are a very broad class of material and many different kinds have been used to potentially combat liver cancer. Gold, silver, platinum, metal oxide, calcium, and selenium NPs as well as less common materials are all inorganic NPs that have been used as a therapeutic, carrier, or imaging agent in drug delivery systems (DDS) and these efforts are described. Carbon-based NPs, including polymeric, polysaccharide, and lipid NPs as well as carbon dots, have also been widely studied for this purpose and the role they play in DDS for the treatment of liver cancer is illustrated in this review. The multifunctional nature of many NPs described herein, allows these systems to display high anticancer activity in vitro and in vivo and highlights the advantage of and need for combinatorial therapy in treating this difficult cancer. These works are summarized, and future directions are presented for this promising field.

Integrated bioinformatics analysis revealed the regulation of angiogenesis by tumor cells in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the leading causes of cancer mortality, metastasis accounts for most of the cases. Angiogenesis plays an important role in cancer metastasis, but how tumor cells affect the function of endothelial cells by dictating their microRNA (miRNA) expression remains largely unknown.

Differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) were identified through dataset downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and analyzed by GEO2R. We then used online tools to obtain potential targets of candidate miRNAs and functional enrichment analysis, as well as the protein-protein interaction (PPI). Finally, the function of miR-302c-3p was validated through in vitro assay.

In the current study, we found that HCC cells altered miRNA expression profiles of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and miR-302c-3p was the most down-regulated miRNA in HUVECs when they were co-cultured with HCC-LM3 cells. Functional enrichment analysis of the candidate targets revealed that these genes were involved in epigenetic regulation of gene expression, in particular, cytosine methylation. In addition, PPI network demonstrated distinct roles of genes targeted by miR-302c-3p. Importantly, inhibition of angiogenesis, migration and permeability by the most down-regulated miR-302c-3p in HUVECs was confirmed in vitro. These findings brought us novel insight into the regulation of angiogenesis by HCC cells and provided potential targets for the development of therapeutic strategies.

Therapeutic strategies for miRNA delivery to reduce hepatocellular carcinoma

Malignancies of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are rapidly spreading and commonly fatal. Like most cancers, the gene expression patterns in HCC vary significantly from patient to patient. Moreover, the expression networks during HCC progression are largely controlled by microRNAs (miRNAs) regulating multiple oncogenes and tumor supressors. Therefore, miRNA-based therapeutic strategies altering these networks may significantly influence the cellular behavior enough for them to cure HCC. However, the most substantial challenges in developing such therapies are the stability of the oligos themselves and that of their delivery systems. Here we provide a comprehensive update describing various miRNA delivery systems, including virus-based delivery and non-viral delivery. The latter may be achieved using inorganic nanoparticles, polymer based nano-carriers, lipid-based vesicles, exosomes, and liposomes. Leaky vasculature in HCC-afflicted livers helps untargeted nanocarriers to accumulate in the tumor tissue but may result in side effects during higher dose of treatment. On the other hand, the strategies for actively targeting miRNA therepeutics to cancerous cells through nano-conjugates or vesicles by decorating their surface with antibodies against or ligands for HCC-specific antigens or receptors are more efficient in preventing damage to healthy tissue and cancer recurrence.

Dehydropeptide Supramolecular Hydrogels and Nanostructures as Potential Peptidomimetic Biomedical Materials

Supramolecular peptide hydrogels are gaining increased attention, owing to their potential in a variety of biomedical applications. Their physical properties are similar to those of the extracellular matrix (ECM), which is key to their applications in the cell culture of specialized cells, tissue engineering, skin regeneration, and wound healing. The structure of these hydrogels usually consists of a di- or tripeptide capped on the N-terminus with a hydrophobic aromatic group, such as Fmoc or naphthalene. Although these peptide conjugates can offer advantages over other types of gelators such as cross-linked polymers, they usually possess the limitation of being particularly sensitive to proteolysis by endogenous proteases. One of the strategies reported that can overcome this barrier is to use a peptidomimetic strategy, in which natural amino acids are switched for non-proteinogenic analogues, such as D-amino acids, β-amino acids, or dehydroamino acids. Such peptides usually possess much greater resistance to enzymatic hydrolysis. Peptides containing dehydroamino acids, i.e., dehydropeptides, are particularly interesting, as the presence of the double bond also introduces a conformational restraint to the peptide backbone, resulting in (often predictable) changes to the secondary structure of the peptide. This review focuses on peptide hydrogels and related nanostructures, where α,β-didehydro-α-amino acids have been successfully incorporated into the structure of peptide hydrogelators, and the resulting properties are discussed in terms of their potential biomedical applications. Where appropriate, their properties are compared with those of the corresponding peptide hydrogelator composed of canonical amino acids. In a wider context, we consider the presence of dehydroamino acids in natural compounds and medicinally important compounds as well as their limitations, and we consider some of the synthetic strategies for obtaining dehydropeptides. Finally, we consider the future direction for this research area.

Mechanisms Underlying Hepatocellular Carcinoma Progression in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) ranks third in cancer-related deaths from solid tumors worldwide. The incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) has increased worldwide in conjunction with the expansion of the Western lifestyle. Furthermore, patients with T2DM have been documented to have an increased risk of HCC, as well as bile tract cancer. Growing evidence shows that T2DM is a strong additive metabolic risk factor for HCC, but how diabetes affects the incidence of HCC requires additional investigation. In this review, we discuss the underlying mechanisms of HCC in patients with T2DM. Topics covered include abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism, hyperinsulinemia, and insulin resistance; the effect of activated platelets; hub gene expression associated with HCC; inflammation and signaling pathways; miRNAs; altered gut microbiota and immunomodulation. The evidence suggests that reducing obesity, diabetes, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease/nonalcoholic steatohepatitis through efficient measures of prevention may lead to decreased rates of T2DM-related HCC.

Nanotechnology for Hepatocellular Carcinoma: From Surveillance, Diagnosis to Management

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains the fourth leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. However, the clinical diagnosis and treatment modalities are still relatively limited, which urgently require the development of new effective technologies. Recently, nanotechnology has gained extensive attention in HCC surveillance, imaging and pathological diagnosis, and therapeutic strategies. Typically, nanomedicines have been focused on early HCC diagnosis and precise treatment of advanced HCC, which has developed and improved a variety of new technologies and agents for future clinical practice. Furthermore, strategies of facilitating drug release and delivery in current treatment processes such as ablation, systematic therapy, transcatheter arterial chemoembolization, molecular targeted therapy, and immune-modulating therapy have also been studied widely. This review summarizes the recent advances in this area according to current clinical HCC guidelines: 1) Nanoparticle-based HCC surveillance; 2) Nanotechnology for HCC diagnosis; 3) Therapeutic advances for HCC Management; 4) Limitations of applications in nanotechnology for HCC; 5) Conclusions and perspectives. Although there are still many limitations and difficulties to overcome, the investigations of nanomedicines are believed to show potential applications in clinical practice.

Recent advances in the fabrication and bio-medical applications of self-assembled dipeptide nanostructures

Molecular self-assembly is a widespread natural phenomenon and has inspired several researchers to synthesize a compendium of nano/microstructures with widespread applications. Biomolecules like proteins, peptides and lipids are used as building blocks to fabricate various nanomaterials. Supramolecular peptide self-assembly continue to play a significant role in forming diverse nanostructures with numerous biomedical applications; however, dipeptides offer distinctive supremacy in their ability to self-assemble and produce a variety of nanostructures. Though several reviews have articulated the progress in the field of longer peptides or polymers and their self-assembling behavior, there is a paucity of reviews or literature covering the emerging field of dipeptide-based nanostructures. In this review, our goal is to present the recent advancements in dipeptide-based nanostructures with their potential applications.

Epigenetically modulated miR-1224 suppresses the proliferation of HCC through CREB-mediated activation of YAP signaling pathway

Mounting evidence has demonstrated that microRNA-1224 (miR-1224) is commonly downregulated and serves as a tumor suppressor in multiple malignancies. However, the role and mechanisms responsible for miR-1224 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain unclear. In this study, we found that the expression of miR-1224 was downregulated in HCC. Low miR-1224 expression was associated with poor clinicopathologic features and short overall survival. Moreover, the methylation status of putative CpG islands was also found to be an important part in the modulation of miR-1224 expression. miR-1224 could induce HCC cells to arrest in G0/G1 phase and inhibited the proliferation of HCC cells both in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistic investigation showed that by binding with cyclic AMP (cAMP)-response element binding protein (CREB) miR-1224 could repress the transcription and the activation of Yes-associated protein (YAP) signaling pathway. Furthermore, the expression of miR-1224 was inhibited by CREB through EZH2-mediated histone 3 lysine 27 (H3K27me3) on miR-1224 promoter, thus forming a positive feedback circuit. Our findings identify a miR-1224/CREB feedback loop for HCC progression and that blocking this circuit may represent a promising target for HCC treatment.

Hepigenetics: A Review of Epigenetic Modulators and Potential Therapies in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma is the fifth most common cancer worldwide and the second most lethal, following lung cancer. Currently applied therapeutic practices rely on surgical resection, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, or a combination thereof. These treatment options are associated with extreme adversities, and risk/benefit ratios do not always work in patients' favor. Anomalies of the epigenome lie at the epicenter of aberrant molecular mechanisms by which the disease develops and progresses. Modulation of these anomalous events poses a promising prospect for alternative treatment options, with an abundance of felicitous results reported in recent years. Herein, the most recent epigenetic modulators in hepatocellular carcinoma are recapitulated on.

Regulators at Every Step-How microRNAs Drive Tumor Cell Invasiveness and Metastasis

Tumor cell invasiveness and metastasis are the main causes of mortality in cancer. Tumor progression is composed of many steps, including primary tumor growth, local invasion, intravasation, survival in the circulation, pre-metastatic niche formation, and metastasis. All these steps are strictly controlled by microRNAs (miRNAs), small non-coding RNA that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. miRNAs can act as oncomiRs that promote tumor cell invasion and metastasis or as tumor suppressor miRNAs that inhibit tumor progression. These miRNAs regulate the actin cytoskeleton, the expression of extracellular matrix (ECM) receptors including integrins and ECM-remodeling enzymes comprising matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and regulate epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), hence modulating cell migration and invasiveness. Moreover, miRNAs regulate angiogenesis, the formation of a pre-metastatic niche, and metastasis. Thus, miRNAs are biomarkers of metastases as well as promising targets of therapy. In this review, we comprehensively describe the role of various miRNAs in tumor cell migration, invasion, and metastasis.

MicroRNA: Promising Roles in Cancer Therapy

MicroRNAs (miRNA) are small non-coding RNAs that act as one of the main regulators of gene expression. They are involved in maintaining a proper balance of diverse processes, including differentiation, proliferation, and cell death in normal cells. Cancer biology can also be affected by these molecules by modulating the expression of oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes. Thus, miRNA based anticancer therapy is currently being developed either alone or in combination with chemotherapy agents used in cancer management, aiming at promoting tumor regression and increasing cure rate. Access to large quantities of RNA agents can facilitate RNA research and development. In addition to currently used in vitro methods, fermentation-based approaches have recently been developed, which can cost-effectively produce biological RNA agents with proper folding needed for the development of RNA-based therapeutics. Nevertheless, a major challenge in translating preclinical studies to clinical for miRNA-based cancer therapy is the efficient delivery of these agents to target cells. Targeting miRNAs/anti-miRNAs using antibodies and/or peptides can minimize cellular and systemic toxicity. Here, we provide a brief review of miRNA in the following aspects: biogenesis and mechanism of action of miRNAs, the role of miRNAs in cancer as tumor suppressors or oncogenes, the potential of using miRNAs as novel and promising therapeutics, miRNA-mediated chemo-sensitization, and currently utilized methods for the in vitro and in vivo production of RNA agents. Finally, an update on the viral and non-viral delivery systems is addressed.

Emerging roles and potential clinical applications of noncoding RNAs in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma(HCC) is one of the most common forms of cancer, and accounts for a high proportion of cancer-associated deaths. Growing evidences have demonstrated that non- protein-coding regions of the genome could give rise to transcripts, termed noncoding RNA (ncRNA), that form novel functional layers of the cellular activity. ncRNAs are implicated in different molecular mechanisms and functions at transcriptional, translational and post-translational levels. An increasing number of studies have demonstrated a complex array of molecular and cellular functions of ncRNAs in different stages of the HCC tumorigenesis, either in an oncogenic or tumor-suppressive manner. As a result, several pre-clinical studies have highlighted the great potentials of ncRNAs as novel biomarkers for cancer diagnosis or therapeutics in targeting HCC progression. In this review, we briefly described the characteristics of several representative ncRNAs and summarized the latest findings of their roles and mechanisms in the development of HCC, in order to better understand the cancer biology and their potential clinical applications in this malignancy.

miRNA-Based Therapies in B Cell Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is a diverse class of hematological cancers, many of which arise from germinal center (GC)-experienced B cells. Thus GCs, the sites of antibody affinity maturation triggered during immune responses, also provide an environment that facilitates B cell oncogenic transformation. miRNAs provide attractive and mechanistically different strategies to treat these malignancies based on their potential for simultaneous modulation of multiple targets. Here, we discuss the scientific rationale for miRNA-based therapeutics in B cell neoplasias and review recent advances that may help establish a basis for novel candidate miRNA-based therapies for B cell-NHL (B-NHL).

Promising RNA-based cancer gene therapy using extracellular vesicles for drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

RNA-based cancer gene therapy shows potential in cancer treatment. However, the safe and efficient transfer of therapeutic RNA to target cells has always been a challenge. The ideal drug delivery system should be effective with low immunogenicity and toxicity. Besides, a high specificity of drug delivery is necessary to improve efficacy and avoid the side effects associated with tumor heterogeneity. As endogenous RNA vehicles, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have shown their advantages and potential as drug delivery systems in gene therapy.

AREAS COVERED

We summarize the performance of EVs as a drug delivery system in RNA-based cancer gene therapy and discuss the advantages, limitations, and potentials of this translational medicine. In addition, we compare the characteristics and differences of current drug delivery systems and expound the principles of selecting a drug delivery system suitable for cancer gene therapy.

EXPERT OPINION

EVs are highly biocompatible membrane structures with low cytotoxicity which provide a new choice for drug delivery in RNA-based cancer gene therapy. The specificity of engineered EVs and artificial EV-mimetics can be improved through peptide or polymer decoration. However, apart from therapeutic RNA, EVs naturally carry many molecules. This may lead to unpredictable effects and thus should be applied with caution.

Ultrashort Peptide Self-Assembly: Front-Runners to Transport Drug and Gene Cargos

The translational therapies to promote interaction between cell and signal come with stringent eligibility criteria. The chemically defined, hierarchically organized, and simpler yet blessed with robust intermolecular association, the peptides, are privileged to make the cut-off for sensing the cell-signal for biologics delivery and tissue engineering. The signature service and insoluble network formation of the peptide self-assemblies as hydrogels have drawn a spell of research activity among the scientists all around the globe in the past decades. The therapeutic peptide market players are anticipating promising growth opportunities due to the ample technological advancements in this field. The presence of the other organic moieties, enzyme substrates and well-established protecting groups like Fmoc and Boc etc., bring the best of both worlds. Since the large sequences of peptides severely limit the purification and their isolation, this article reviews the account of last 5 years' efforts on novel approaches for formulation and development of single molecule amino acids, ultra-short peptide self-assemblies (di- and tri- peptides only) and their derivatives as drug/gene carriers and tissue-engineering systems.

MicroRNA-125a-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles Alleviate Systemic Lupus Erythematosus by Restoring Effector/Regulatory T Cells Balance

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), a common lethal autoimmune disease, is characterized by effector/regulatory T cells imbalance. Current therapies are either inefficient or have severe side effects. MicroRNA-125a (miR-125a) can stabilize Treg-mediated self-tolerance by targeting effector programs, but it is significantly downregulated in peripheral T cells of patients with SLE. Therefore, overexpression of miR-125a may have therapeutic potential to treat SLE. Considering the stability and targeted delivery of miRNA remains a major challenge in vivo, we constructed a monomethoxy (polyethylene glycol)-poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide)-poly(l-lysine) (mPEG-PLGA-PLL) nanodelivery system to deliver miR-125a into splenic T cells. Results demonstrate that miR-125a-loaded mPEG-PLGA-PLL (PEAL_miR-125a) nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit good biocompatibility and protect miR-125a from degradation, thereby prolonging the circulatory time of miRNA in vivo. In addition, PEAL_miR-125a NPs are preferentially enriched in a pathological spleen and efficiently deliver miR-125a into the splenic T cells in SLE mice models. The PEAL_miR-125a NPs treatment significantly alleviates SLE disease progression by reversing the imbalance of effector/regulatory T cells. Collectively, the PEAL_miR-125a NPs show excellent therapeutic efficacy and safety, which may provide an effective treatment for SLE.

Activation of mTOR Signaling Pathway in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most frequent primary liver cancer and occurs mainly in patients with liver cirrhosis. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway is involved in many hallmarks of cancer including cell growth, metabolism re-programming, proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis. The mTOR pathway is upregulated in HCC tissue samples as compared with the surrounding liver cirrhotic tissue. In addition, the activation of mTOR is more intense in the tumor edge, thus reinforcing its role in HCC proliferation and spreading. The inhibition of the mTOR pathway by currently available pharmacological compounds (i.e., sirolimus or everolimus) is able to hamper tumor progression both in vitro and in animal models. The use of mTOR inhibitors alone or in combination with other therapies is a very attractive approach, which has been extensively investigated in humans. However, results are contradictory and there is no solid evidence suggesting a true benefit in clinical practice. As a result, neither sirolimus nor everolimus are currently approved to treat HCC or to prevent tumor recurrence after curative surgery. In the present comprehensive review, we analyzed the most recent scientific evidence while providing some insights to understand the gap between experimental and clinical studies.

Tumor-triggered personalized microRNA cocktail therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma

miRNA cocktail therapy based on pH-responsive nanoparticles featuring PEG detachment and size transformation is a potential strategy for HCC treatment.

MicroRNA-Based Combinatorial Cancer Therapy: Effects of MicroRNAs on the Efficacy of Anti-Cancer Therapies

The susceptibility of cancer cells to different types of treatments can be restricted by intrinsic and acquired therapeutic resistance, leading to the failure of cancer regression and remission. To overcome this problem, a combination therapy has been proposed as a fundamental strategy to improve therapeutic responses; however, resistance is still unavoidable. MicroRNA (miRNAs) are associated with cancer therapeutic resistance. The modulation of dysregulated miRNA levels through miRNA-based therapy comprising a replacement or inhibition approach has been proposed to sensitize cancer cells to other anti-cancer therapies. The combination of miRNA-based therapy with other anti-cancer therapies (miRNA-based combinatorial cancer therapy) is attractive, due to the ability of miRNAs to target multiple genes associated with the signaling pathways controlling therapeutic resistance. In this article, we present an overview of recent findings on the role of therapeutic resistance-related miRNAs in different types of cancer. We review the feasibility of utilizing dysregulated miRNAs in cancer cells and extracellular vesicles as potential candidates for miRNA-based combinatorial cancer therapy. We also discuss innate properties of miRNAs that need to be considered for more effective combinatorial cancer therapy.

RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK, PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTORC1 and TP53 pathways and regulatory miRs as therapeutic targets in hepatocellular carcinoma

Introduction: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a significant problem globally because of viral infections and the increasing incidence of obesity and fatty liver disease. However, it is difficult to treat because its inherent genetic heterogeneity results in activation of numerous signaling pathways. Kinases have been targeted for decades with varying results, but the development of therapeutic resistance is a major challenge.Areas covered: The key roles of the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK, PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTORC1, TP53 microRNAs (miRs) as therapeutic targets are discussed and we suggests novel approaches for targeting miRs or their downstream targets to combat HCC. We performed literature searches using the Medline Database from 2000 to the present.Expert opinion: The involvement of RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK, PI3K/PTEN/AKT/mTORC and TP53 pathways as drivers of the disease and drug resistance is a challenge. Moreover, miRs regulate the expression of key genes in these pathways. What we and others are proposing is the prospect of targeting miRs and their downstream targets to improve conventional approaches to treat HCC. Combination approaches are often promising because multiple signaling pathways are deregulated due to diverse mutations and events.