How much of the deprivation gap in cancer survival can be explained by variation in stage at diagnosis: an example from breast cancer in the East of England

Screen-detected breast cancer and cancer stage by area-level deprivation: a descriptive analysis using data from the National Cancer Registry Ireland

Breast cancer screening programmes can lead to better disease outcomes, but women from deprived backgrounds are less likely to participate and more likely to present with late-stage cancer. This study aimed to explore associations between deprivation and breast cancer screening outcomes in Ireland during 2009-2018. Data on all female breast cancer cases diagnosed in Ireland during 2009-2018 were extracted from the National Cancer Registry Ireland. Associations between area-level deprivation, using the Pobal Haase-Pratschke deprivation index, and detection of breast cancer through BreastCheck, Ireland's breast screening programme, and stage of screen-detected breast cancer were explored. Unadjusted risk ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. Among screening eligible women in Ireland in 2009-2018, there was no difference in risk of breast cancer detection through BreastCheck across deprivation quintiles (RR for most compared to least deprived group: 1.01, 95% CI: 0.96-1.06). In women with screen-detected breast cancer, the risk of late-stage cancer detection increased with deprivation in 2009-2013 (RR for most compared to least deprived group: 1.45, 95% CI: 1.10-1.93), but no association was observed between deprivation and cancer stage in 2014-2018. Notwithstanding its limitations, including the risk of confounding by uncontrolled variables, this study suggests screening eligible women in Ireland have had similar outcomes from breast cancer screening, regardless of deprivation level, since the national roll-out of BreastCheck. Associations between deprivation and screening outcomes should continue to be monitored to ensure Ireland's breast cancer screening programme is helping to reduce health inequities.

Relationship between Health Inequalities and Breast Cancer Survival in Mexican Women

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to analyze the relationship between the survival of patients with breast cancer and health inequalities.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study of women with stage III breast cancer according to public healthcare was conducted. Groups were stratified according to the course of treatment and the presence of chronic disease other than cancer. Survival functions were estimated by using the Kaplan-Meier estimator, while the Cox proportional hazards model was employed for prognostic assessment.

RESULTS

The study was performed on 964 breast cancer patients. One hundred and seventy-six patients (18.23%) died during the follow-up period and 788 (81.77%) were alive at the end of the follow-up period. Education, marital status, personal history of prior biopsies, and socioeconomic status (SES) were found to be linked with survival. However, only SES exceeded the baseline risk of mortality when the treatment cycle was interrupted (full treatment: unadjusted 4.683, p = 0.001; adjusted 4.888 p = 0.001, partial treatment: unadjusted 1.973, p = 0.012; adjusted 4.185, p = 0.001). The same effect was observed when stratifying by the presence of chronic disease other than cancer (with chronic disease adjusted HR = 4.948, p = 0.001; unadjusted HR = 3.303, p = 0.001; without chronic disease adjusted HR = 4.850, p = 0.001; unadjusted HR = 5.121, p = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Since lower SES was linked with a worse prognosis, strategies to promote preventive medicine, particularly breast cancer screening programs and prompt diagnosis, are needed.

Is survival rate lower after breast cancer in deprived women according to disease stage?

BACKGROUND

Socioeconomic deprivation has been associated with lower breast cancer (BC) survival, but the influence of stage at diagnosis on this association merits further study. Our aim was to investigate this association using the Loire-Atlantique/Vendee Cancer Registry (France).

METHODS

Twelve-thousand seven-hundred thirty-eight women living in the area covered by the registry and diagnosed with invasive breast carcinoma between 2008 and 2015 were included in the study. They were censored at maximal 6 years. Deprivation was measured by the French European Deprivation Index. Excess hazard and net survival were estimated for deprivation level, stage and age at diagnosis using a flexible excess mortality hazard model.

RESULTS

After adjustment by stage, women living in the most deprived areas had a borderline non-significant higher excess mortality hazard (+25% (95% CI: -3%; +62%)) compared to those living in the least deprived areas. Stage-adjusted 5-year net survival differed significantly between these two subgroups (respectively, 88.2% (95% CI:85.2%-90.5%) and 92.5% (95% CI:90.6%-93.9%)).

CONCLUSION

BC survival remained lower in deprived areas in France, despite universal access to cancer care. Intensification of prevention measures could help to reduce advanced BC, responsible for the majority of deaths from BC. A better understanding of remaining social disparities is crucial to implement specific interventions.

Socioeconomic inequalities in breast cancer survival in Reunion Island: The contribution of stage at diagnosis as a mediator

INTRODUCTION

Although breast cancer survival has improved in France, it appears that women living in deprived areas are more likely to die from breast cancer. However, no study has yet examined socioeconomic inequalities in breast cancer survival in La Réunion. Our objective was to examine whether socioeconomic inequalities in breast cancer survival exist in Reunion Island and whether stage at diagnosis could partly explain these differences.

METHODS

A population-based cohort study of all women on Reunion Island with primary breast cancer diagnosed between 2008 and 2016 was conducted. Each woman was assigned a deprivation index based on her area of residence at diagnosis. Net survival by deprivation group and stage at diagnosis was estimated by the non parametric Pohar Perme method. The role of stage (indirect effect) was assessed using a mediation analysis extended to the relative survival framework.

RESULTS

At five years, net survival was significantly lower in women living in the most deprived areas than in women living in the least deprived areas (81 % (95 % CI 77-86) and 91 % (95 % CI 89-94), respectively, p < 0.0001), and mediation analysis showed that the contribution of stage at diagnosis to these survival differences was 43 %.

DISCUSSION

Our result shows that although measures to promote earlier diagnosis are important, they would only reduce socioeconomic inequalities in breast cancer survival by 43 %. To further investigate these inequalities, future research should explore the role of unmeasured mediators, such as comorbidities and treatment received, as well as the impact of specific interventions that might address the differences in mediator distribution.

Quantifying the number of deaths among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cancer patients that could be avoided by removing survival inequalities, Australia 2005-2016

BACKGROUND

While Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have poorer cancer survival than other Australians, absolute measures of survival disparities are lacking. This study quantified crude probabilities of deaths from cancer and other causes and estimated the number of avoidable deaths for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders if these survival disparities were removed.

METHODS

Flexible parametric relative survival models were used to estimate reported measures for a population-based cohort of 709,239 Australians (12,830 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples), 2005-2016.

RESULTS

Among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, the 5-year crude probability of cancer death was 0.44, while it was 0.07 for other causes of death. These probabilities were 0.07 and 0.03 higher than among other Australians, respectively. Magnitude of these disparities varied by cancer type and ranged for cancer deaths from <0.05 for pancreatic, prostate and uterine cancers to 0.20 for cervical and head and neck cancers. Values for disparity in other causes of death were generally lower. Among an average cohort of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples diagnosed per year over the most recent five-year diagnosis period (2012-2016, n = 1,269), approximately 133 deaths within 5 years of diagnosis were potentially avoidable if they had the same overall survival as other Australians, with 94 of these deaths due to cancer. The total number of avoided deaths over the entire study period (2005-2016) was 1,348, with 947 of these deaths due to cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

Study findings suggest the need to reduce the prevalence of risk factors prevalence, increase screening participation, and improve early detection, diagnosis and treatment rates to achieve more equitable outcomes for a range of cancer types. Reported measures provide unique insights into the impact of a cancer diagnosis among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples from a different perspective to standard relative survival measures.

Concordance with urgent referral guidelines in patients presenting with any of six 'alarm' features of possible cancer: a retrospective cohort study using linked primary care records

BACKGROUND

Clinical guidelines advise GPs in England which patients warrant an urgent referral for suspected cancer. This study assessed how often GPs follow the guidelines, whether certain patients are less likely to be referred, and how many patients were diagnosed with cancer within 1 year of non-referral.

METHODS

We used linked primary care (Clinical Practice Research Datalink), secondary care (Hospital Episode Statistics) and cancer registration data. Patients presenting with haematuria, breast lump, dysphagia, iron-deficiency anaemia, post-menopausal or rectal bleeding for the first time during 2014-2015 were included (for ages where guidelines recommend urgent referral). Logistic regression was used to investigate whether receiving a referral was associated with feature type and patient characteristics. Cancer incidence (based on recorded diagnoses in cancer registry data within 1 year of presentation) was compared between those receiving and those not receiving referrals.

RESULTS

48 715 patients were included, of which 40% (n=19 670) received an urgent referral within 14 days of presentation, varying by feature from 17% (dysphagia) to 68% (breast lump). Young patients (18-24 vs 55-64 years; adjusted OR 0.20, 95% CI 0.10 to 0.42, p<0.001) and those with comorbidities (4 vs 0 comorbidities; adjusted OR 0.87, 95% CI 0.80 to 0.94, p<0.001) were less likely to receive a referral. Associations between patient characteristics and referrals differed across features: among patients presenting with anaemia, breast lump or haematuria, those with multi-morbidity, and additionally for breast lump, more deprived patients were less likely to receive a referral. Of 29 045 patients not receiving a referral, 3.6% (1047) were diagnosed with cancer within 1 year, ranging from 2.8% for rectal bleeding to 9.5% for anaemia.

CONCLUSIONS

Guideline recommendations for action are not followed for the majority of patients presenting with common possible cancer features. A significant number of these patients developed cancer within 1 year of their consultation, indicating scope for improvement in the diagnostic process.

Influence of geographic access and socioeconomic characteristics on breast cancer outcomes: A systematic review

Socio-economic and geographical inequalities in breast cancer mortality have been widely described in European countries and the United States. To investigate the combined effects of geographic access and socio-economic characteristics on breast cancer outcomes, a systematic review was conducted exploring the relationships between: (i) geographic access to healthcare facilities (oncology services, mammography screening), defined as travel time and/or travel distance; (ii) breast cancer-related outcomes (mammography screening, stage of cancer at diagnosis, type of treatment and rate of mortality); (iii) socioeconomic status (SES) at individuals and residential context levels. In total, n = 25 studies (29 relationships tested) were included in our systematic review. The four main results are: The statistical significance of the relationship between geographic access and breast cancer-related outcomes is heterogeneous: 15 were identified as significant and 14 as non-significant. Women with better geographic access to healthcare facilities had a statistically significant fewer mastectomy (n = 4/6) than women with poorer geographic access. The relationship with the stage of the cancer is more balanced (n = 8/17) and the relationship with cancer screening rate is not observed (n = 1/4). The type of measures of geographic access (distance, time or geographical capacity) does not seem to have any influence on the results. For example, studies which compared two different measures (travel distance and travel time) of geographic access obtained similar results. The relationship between SES characteristics and breast cancer-related outcomes is significant for several variables: at individual level, age and health insurance status; at contextual level, poverty rate and deprivation index. Of the 25 papers included in the review, the large majority (n = 24) tested the independent effect of geographic access. Only one study explored the combined effect of geographic access to breast cancer facilities and SES characteristics by developing stratified models.

Assessing lead time bias due to mammography screening on estimates of loss in life expectancy

BACKGROUND

An increasingly popular measure for summarising cancer prognosis is the loss in life expectancy (LLE), i.e. the reduction in life expectancy following a cancer diagnosis. The proportion of life lost (PLL) can also be derived, improving comparability across age groups as LLE is highly age-dependent. LLE and PLL are often used to assess the impact of cancer over the remaining lifespan and across groups (e.g. socioeconomic groups). However, in the presence of screening, it is unclear whether part of the differences across population groups could be attributed to lead time bias. Lead time is the extra time added due to early diagnosis, that is, the time from tumour detection through screening to the time that cancer would have been diagnosed symptomatically. It leads to artificially inflated survival estimates even when there are no real survival improvements.

METHODS

In this paper, we used a simulation-based approach to assess the impact of lead time due to mammography screening on the estimation of LLE and PLL in breast cancer patients. A natural history model developed in a Swedish setting was used to simulate the growth of breast cancer tumours and age at symptomatic detection. Then, a screening programme similar to current guidelines in Sweden was imposed, with individuals aged 40-74 invited to participate every second year; different scenarios were considered for screening sensitivity and attendance. To isolate the lead time bias of screening, we assumed that screening does not affect the actual time of death. Finally, estimates of LLE and PLL were obtained in the absence and presence of screening, and their difference was used to derive the lead time bias.

RESULTS

The largest absolute bias for LLE was 0.61 years for a high screening sensitivity scenario and assuming perfect screening attendance. The absolute bias was reduced to 0.46 years when the perfect attendance assumption was relaxed to allow for imperfect attendance across screening visits. Bias was also present for the PLL estimates.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the analysis suggested that lead time bias influences LLE and PLL metrics, thus requiring special consideration when interpreting comparisons across calendar time or population groups.

Are socio-economic inequalities in breast cancer survival explained by peri-diagnostic factors?

BACKGROUND

Patients living in more deprived localities have lower cancer survival in England, but the role of individual health status at diagnosis and the utilisation of primary health care in explaining these differentials has not been widely considered. We set out to evaluate whether pre-existing individual health status at diagnosis and primary care consultation history (peri-diagnostic factors) could explain socio-economic differentials in survival amongst women diagnosed with breast cancer.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of women aged 15-99 years diagnosed in England using linked routine data. Ecologically-derived measures of income deprivation were combined with individually-linked data from the English National Cancer Registry, Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD) and Hospital Episodes Statistics (HES) databases. Smoking status, alcohol consumption, BMI, comorbidity, and consultation histories were derived for all patients. Time to breast surgery was derived for women diagnosed after 2005. We estimated net survival and modelled the excess hazard ratio of breast cancer death using flexible parametric models. We accounted for missing data using multiple imputation.

RESULTS

Net survival was lower amongst more deprived women, with a single unit increase in deprivation quintile inferring a 4.4% (95% CI 1.4-8.8) increase in excess mortality. Peri-diagnostic co-variables varied by deprivation but did not explain the differentials in multivariable analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

These data show that socio-economic inequalities in survival cannot be explained by consultation history or by pre-existing individual health status, as measured in primary care. Differentials in the effectiveness of treatment, beyond those measuring the inclusion of breast surgery and the timing of surgery, should be considered as part of the wider effort to reduce inequalities in premature mortality.

Factors Explaining Socio-Economic Inequalities in Cancer Survival: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

There is strong and well-documented evidence that socio-economic inequality in cancer survival exists within and between countries, but the underlying causes of these differences are not well understood.

METHODS

We systematically searched the Ovid Medline, EMBASE, and CINAHL databases up to 31 May 2020. Observational studies exploring pathways by which socio-economic position (SEP) might causally influence cancer survival were included.

RESULTS

We found 74 eligible articles published between 2005 and 2020. Cancer stage, other tumor characteristics, health-related lifestyle behaviors, co-morbidities and treatment were reported as key contributing factors, although the potential mediating effect of these factors varied across cancer sites. For common cancers such as breast and prostate cancer, stage of disease was generally cited as the primary explanatory factor, while co-morbid conditions and treatment were also reported to contribute to lower survival for more disadvantaged cases. In contrast, for colorectal cancer, most studies found that stage did not explain the observed differences in survival by SEP. For lung cancer, inequalities in survival appear to be partly explained by receipt of treatment and co-morbidities.

CONCLUSIONS

Most studies compared regression models with and without adjusting for potential mediators; this method has several limitations in the presence of multiple mediators that could result in biased estimates of mediating effects and invalid conclusions. It is therefore essential that future studies apply modern methods of causal mediation analysis to accurately estimate the contribution of potential explanatory factors for these inequalities, which may translate into effective interventions to improve survival for disadvantaged cancer patients.

Socioeconomic inequalities in stage-specific breast cancer incidence: a nationwide registry study of 1.1 million young women in Norway, 2000-2015

BACKGROUND

Women with high socioeconomic status (SES) have the highest incidence rates of breast cancer. We wanted to determine if high SES women only have higher rates of localized disease, or whether they also have higher rates of non-localized disease. To study this, we used data on a young population with universal health care, but not offered screening.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Using individually linked registry data, we compared stage-specific breast cancer incidence, by education level and income quintile, in a Norwegian cohort of 1,106,863 women aged 30-48 years during 2000-2015 (N = 7531 breast cancer cases). We calculated stage-specific age-standardized rates and incidence rate ratios and rate differences using Poisson models adjusted for age, period and immigration history.

RESULTS

Incidence of localized and regional disease increased significantly with increasing education and income level. Incidence of distant stage disease did not vary significantly by education level but was significantly reduced in the four highest compared to the lowest income quintile. The age-standardized rates for tertiary versus compulsory educated women were: localized 28.2 vs 19.8, regional 50.8 vs 40.4 and distant 2.3 vs 2.6 per 100,000 person-years. The adjusted incidence rate ratios (tertiary versus compulsory) were: localized 1.40 (95% CI 1.25-1.56), regional 1.25 (1.15-1.35), distant 0.90 (0.64-1.26). The age-standardized rates for women in the highest versus lowest income quintile were: localized 28.9 vs 17.7, regional 52.8 vs 41.5 and distant 2.3 vs 3.2 per 100,000 person-years. The adjusted incidence rate ratios (highest versus lowest quintile) were: localized 1.63 (1.42-1.87), regional 1.27 (1.09-1.32), distant 0.64 (0.43-0.94).

CONCLUSION

Increased breast cancer rates among young high SES women is not just increased detection of small localized tumors, but also increased incidence of tumors with regional spread. The higher incidence of young high SES women is therefore real and not only because of excessive screening.

Social Inequalities in Cancer Survival in Belgium: A Population-Based Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Socioeconomic status (SES) is an important factor in cancer survival; however, results are heterogeneous and linked to characteristics of the study population and health care system. This population-based cohort study evaluates the association between individual-level socioeconomic and demographic factors and cancer survival for the first time in Belgium.

METHODS

From the Belgian Cancer Registry, we identified 109,591 patients diagnosed between 2006 and 2013 with one of eight common cancer types. Information on treatment, socioeconomic parameters, and vital status were retrieved from multiple data sources and linked using a unique personal identification number. The outcome was 5-year observed survival. Associations between survival and socioeconomic and demographic factors were assessed using multivariable Cox proportional-hazard regression models.

RESULTS

Lower income, unemployment, and living alone were all associated with worse cancer survival. These associations were most pronounced for certain lifestyle-related cancer types (e.g., head and neck cancers) and those with good to moderate prognosis (e.g., colorectal and female breast cancer).

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that, despite a comprehensive and nationwide health insurance program in which equity in rights and access to health care are pursued, SES is associated with disparities in cancer survival in Belgium.

IMPACT

This population-based study with individual-level socioeconomic information of more than 100,000 patients with cancer identifies patient groups that may be at highest risk for socioeconomic disparities in cancer survival. Reasons behind the observed disparities are multiple and complex and should be further examined. Health policy interventions should consider the observed deprivation gap to plan targeted actions.

Quantifying the Number of Cancer Deaths Avoided Due to Improvements in Cancer Survival since the 1980s in the Australian Population, 1985-2014

BACKGROUND

This study quantifies the number of potentially "avoided"cancer deaths due to differences in 10-year relative survival between three time periods, reflecting temporal improvements in cancer diagnostic and/or treatment practices in Australia.

METHODS

National population-based cohort of 2,307,565 Australians ages 15 to 89 years, diagnosed with a primary invasive cancer from 1985 to 2014 with mortality follow-up to December 31, 2015. Excess mortality rates and crude probabilities of cancer deaths were estimated using flexible parametric relative survival models. Crude probabilities were then used to calculate "avoided cancer deaths" (reduced number of cancer deaths within 10 years of diagnosis due to survival changes since 1985-1994) for all cancers and 13 leading cancer types.

RESULTS

For each cancer type, excess mortality (in the cancer cohort vs. the expected population mortality) was significantly lower for more recently diagnosed persons. For all cancers combined, the number of "avoided cancer deaths" (vs. 1985-1994) was 4,877 (1995-2004) and 11,385 (2005-2014) among males. Prostate (1995-2004: 2,144; 2005-2014: 5,099) and female breast cancer (1,127 and 2,048) had the highest number of such deaths, whereas <400 were avoided for pancreatic or lung cancers across each period.

CONCLUSIONS

Screening and early detection likely contributed to the high number of "avoided cancer deaths" for prostate and female breast cancer, whereas early detection remains difficult for lung and pancreatic cancers, highlighting the need for improved preventive and screening measures.

IMPACT

Absolute measures such as "avoided cancer deaths" can provide a more tangible estimate of the improvements in cancer survival than standard net survival measures.

Stage-specific survival has improved for young breast cancer patients since 2000: but not equally

Purpose

The stage-specific survival of young breast cancer patients has improved, likely due to diagnostic and treatment advances. We addressed whether survival improvements have reached all socioeconomic groups in a country with universal health care and national treatment guidelines.

Methods

Using Norwegian registry data, we assessed stage-specific breast cancer survival by education and income level of 7501 patients (2317 localized, 4457 regional, 233 distant and 494 unknown stage) aged 30–48 years at diagnosis during 2000–2015. Using flexible parametric models and national life tables, we compared excess mortality up to 12 years from diagnosis and 5-year relative survival trends, by education and income as measures of socioeconomic status (SES).

Results

Throughout 2000–2015, regional and distant stage 5-year relative survival improved steadily for patients with high education and high income (high SES), but not for patients with low education and low income (low SES). Regional stage 5-year relative survival improved from 85 to 94% for high SES patients (9% change; 95% confidence interval: 6, 13%), but remained at 84% for low SES patients (0% change; − 12, 12%). Distant stage 5-year relative survival improved from 22 to 58% for high SES patients (36% change; 24, 49%), but remained at 11% for low SES patients (0% change; − 19, 19%).

Conclusions

Regional and distant stage breast cancer survival has improved markedly for high SES patients, but there has been little survival gain for low SES patients. Socioeconomic status matters for the stage-specific survival of young breast cancer patients, even with universal health care.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s10549-020-05698-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Do socioeconomic factors play a role in nonadherence to follow-up colonoscopy after a positive faecal immunochemical test in the Flemish colorectal cancer screening programme?

OBJECTIVE

In Flanders (Belgium), a population-based colorectal cancer (CRC) screening programme was started in 2013, coordinated by the Centre for Cancer Detection (CCD) in cooperation with the Belgian Cancer Registry (BCR). The CCD offers a biennial faecal immunochemical test (FIT) to Flemish citizens aged 56-74 years and recommends a colonoscopy when screened positive by FIT. The study objective is to investigate sociodemographic differences in follow-up colonoscopy adherence after a positive FIT.

METHODS

Characteristics of the study population were derived by linkage of data from the CCD and BCR, linked with data of the Intermutualistic Agency and the Crossroads Bank for Social Security, resulting in aggregated tables to ensure anonymity. A total of 37 834 men and women aged 56-74 years with a positive FIT in 2013-2014 were included. Adherence to follow-up colonoscopy was calculated for age, sex, work intensity at household level, preferential reimbursement status, and first and current nationality. Descriptive analyses and logistic regressions were performed.

RESULTS

Nonadherence to follow-up colonoscopy was associated with increasing age, and was significantly higher in men [odds ratio (OR), 1.08], participants with a preferential reimbursement status (OR, 1.34), very low work intensity (OR, 1.41), no payed work (OR, 1.38) and other than Belgian nationality by birth (OR, 1.6-4.66).

CONCLUSION

Adherence to follow-up colonoscopy after a positive FIT differs according to sociodemographic variables. Additional research is needed to explore reasons for nonadherence to colonoscopy and tackle barriers by exploring interventions to increase colonoscopy follow-up adherence after a positive FIT in the Flemish colorectal cancer screening programme.

[Influence of Sociodemographic Factors on Type of and Stage at Diagnosis in Breast Cancer]

This study examines the influence of sociodemographic factors on the type of and stage at diagnosis in breast cancer in Germany.

METHOD

As part of the certification of the breast cancer centers by the German Cancer Society (DGK), the Institute of Medical Sociology, Health Services and Rehabilitation Science (IMVR) conducted nationwide post-stationary postal patient surveys (n=852). The influence of sociodemographic factors on the type of diagnosis and on the stage at diagnosis were each analyzed using a multinomial logistic regression.

RESULTS

45.5% palpated the tumor by themselves, 33.4% were diagnosed by mammography screening and 16.6% by gynecological check-up. Being diagnosed by screening was associated with an early stage cancer. Furthermore, breast cancer patients without private health insurance or with a low educational level were less likely to be diagnosed by a gynecological check-up. Patients within screening age (50-69) had higher odds for an early stage breast cancer. Patients with a low educational level had lower odds for an early stage breast cancer.

CONCLUSION

Fifty percent of the breast cancer patients were not diagnosed by screening. Mammography screening appears to be more sensitive in detecting early stage cancer, since we found an association between diagnosis by screening and an early stage cancer. Age outside of the screening range and a low educational level might be risk factors for an advanced stage breast cancer. High screening rates, especially for these risk groups, seem to be important for early detection of breast cancer.

Socioeconomic inequality in cancer survival - changes over time. A population-based study, Denmark, 1987-2013

Background: Socioeconomic inequality in survival after cancer have been reported in several countries and also in Denmark. Changes in cancer diagnostics and treatment may have changed the gap in survival between affluent and deprived patients and we investigated if the differences in relative survival by income has changed in Danish cancer patients over the past 25 years. Methods: The 1- and 5-year relative survival by income quintile is computed by comparing survival among cancer patients diagnosed 1987-2009 to the survival of a cancer-free matched sample of the background population. The comparison is done within the 15 most common cancers and all cancers combined. The gap in relative survival due to socioeconomic inequality for the period 1987-1991 is compared the period 2005-2009. Results: The relative 5-year survival increased for all 15 cancer sites investigated in the study period. In general, low-income patients diagnosed in 1987-1991 had between 0% and 11% units lower 5-year relative survival compared with high-income patients; however, only four sites (breast, prostate, bladder and head & neck) were statistically different. In patients diagnosed 2005-2009, the gap in 5-year RS was ranging from 2% to 22% units and statistically significantly different for 9 out of 15 sites. The results for 1-year relative survival were similar to the 5-year survival gap. An estimated 22% of all deaths at five years after diagnosis could be avoided had patients in all income groups had same survival as the high-income group. Conclusion: In this nationwide population-based study, we observed that the large improvements in both short- and long-term cancer survival among patients diagnosed 1987-2009. The improvements have been most pronounced for high-income cancer patients, leading to stable or even increasing survival differences between richest and poorest patients. Improving survival among low-income patients would improve survival rates among Danish cancer patients overall and reduce differences in survival when compared to other Western European countries.

Socioeconomic environment and disparities in cancer survival for 19 solid tumor sites: An analysis of the French Network of Cancer Registries (FRANCIM) data

Social inequalities are concerning along the cancer continuum. In France, social gradient in health is particularly marked but little is known about social gradient in cancer survival. We aimed to investigate the influence of socioeconomic environment on cancer survival, for all cancers reported in the French Network of Cancer Registries. We analyzed 189,657 solid tumors diagnosed between 2006 and 2009, recorded in 18 registries. The European Deprivation Index (EDI), an ecological index measuring relative poverty in small geographic areas, assessed social environment. The EDI was categorized into quintiles of the national distribution. One- and five-year age-standardized net survival (ASNS) were estimated for each solid tumor site and deprivation quintile, among men and among women. We found that 5-year ASNS was lower among patients living in the most deprived areas compared to those living in the least deprived ones for 14/16 cancers among men and 16/18 cancers among women. The extent of cancer survival disparities according to deprivation varied substantially across the cancer sites. The reduction in ASNS between the least and the most deprived quintile reached 34% for liver cancer among men and 59% for bile duct cancer among women. For pancreas, stomach and esophagus cancer (among men), and ovary and stomach cancer (among women), deprivation gaps were larger at 1-year than 5-year survival. In conclusion, survival was worse in the most deprived areas for almost all cancers. Our results from population-based cancer registries data highlight the need for implementing actions to reduce social inequalities in cancer survival in France.

Disparidade racial na sobrevivência em 10 anos para o câncer de mama: uma análise de mediação usando abordagem de respostas potenciais

Os objetivos foram investigar a associação entre raça/cor e a sobrevivência em 10 anos de mulheres com câncer de mama e o papel do estadiamento como mediador. Coorte hospitalar com 481 mulheres com câncer invasivo de mama, diagnosticadas entre 2003 e 2005. Foram feitas comparações entre mulheres brancas e negras quanto às características sociodemográficas e ao estadiamento, usando o teste qui-quadrado, e à sobrevivência em 10 anos, usando os métodos de Kaplan-Meier e regressão de Cox. Foram estimados para a variável raça/cor efeitos diretos e indiretos, mediados pelo estadiamento, com ajuste para a condição social da área de residência e idade, utilizando o modelo de respostas potenciais (contrafactual) e regressão múltipla de Cox. As mulheres negras residiam em setores censitários de menor renda, eram usuárias do setor público em maior proporção e foram diagnosticadas com estadiamentos mais avançados. A sobrevivência específica em 10 anos foi de 64,3% (IC95%: 60,0; 68,9), com diferença significativa entre brancas (69,5%; IC95%: 64,8; 74,6) e negras (44%; IC95%: 35,2; 55,1). Nos modelos múltiplos, ajustados para renda e idade, as negras tiveram pior prognóstico (HR = 2,09; IC95%: 1,76; 2,51), e a proporção mediada pelo estadiamento foi de 40% (IC95%: 37; 42). Há disparidade racial na sobrevivência do câncer de mama em 10 anos, mediada principalmente pelo estadiamento mais avançado da doença nas mulheres negras. Isso aponta para a necessidade de ampliar a cobertura e a qualidade do programa de rastreamento dessa doença e facilitar o acesso ao diagnóstico e tratamento precoces, com vistas à redução da iniquidade racial.

Development of a Behavior Change Intervention to Encourage Timely Cancer Symptom Presentation Among People Living in Deprived Communities Using the Behavior Change Wheel

Background

Targeted public awareness interventions are needed to improve earlier cancer diagnosis and reduce socioeconomic inequalities in cancer outcomes. The health check (intervention) is a touchscreen questionnaire delivered by trained lay advisors that aims to raise awareness of cancer symptoms and risk factors and encourage timely help seeking.

Purpose

This study aimed to apply the Behavior Change Wheel to intervention refinement by identifying barriers and facilitators to timely symptom presentation among people living in socioeconomically deprived communities.

Methods

Primary data (six focus groups with health professionals, community partners and public) and secondary data (systematic review of barriers and facilitators to cancer symptom presentation) were mapped iteratively to the Behavior Change Wheel.

Results

Barriers and facilitators were identified from the systematic review and focus groups comprising 14 members of the public aged over 40, 14 community partners, and 14 healthcare professionals. Barriers included poor symptom knowledge and lack of motivation to engage in preventive or proactive behaviors. Facilitators included cues/prompts to action, general practitioner preparedness to listen, and social networks. The following behavior change techniques were selected to address identified barriers and facilitators: information about health consequences, prompts/cues, credible sources, restricting physical and social environment, social support, goal setting, and action planning.

Conclusions

The Behavior ChangeWheel triangulated findings from primary and secondary data sources. An intervention combining education and enablement could encourage timely symptom presentation to primary care among people living in socioeconomically deprived communities. Social encouragement and support is needed to increase symptom knowledge, challenge negative cancer beliefs, and prompt decisions to engage with the healthcare system.

Is lower symptom recognition associated with socioeconomic inequalities in help-seeking for potential breast cancer symptoms?

OBJECTIVE

Socioeconomic inequalities in recognising signs and symptoms of cancer may result in inequalities in timely help-seeking and subsequent prognosis of breast cancer. We explored the mediating role of symptom attribution and concern on the relationship between level of education and help-seeking for potential breast cancer symptoms.

METHODS

Women aged ≥47 years (n = 961) were purposively recruited (by education) to complete an online vignette-based survey that included nipple rash and axillary lump (in separate vignettes) as potential symptoms of breast cancer. Women completed questions relating to medical help-seeking (yes/no), cancer attribution, symptom concern, cancer avoidance, family history, and demographics.

RESULTS

Women with low education and mid education attributed nipple rash less often to cancer (26% and 27% mentioned cancer) than women with a degree or higher (40%). However, women with a degree or higher (63%) or mid education (64%) were less likely to anticipate seeking help for the nipple rash than women with no formal qualifications (73%). This association was statistically significant in the 60- to 69-year-old age group. There was no significant association between education and help-seeking for axillary lump. Mediation analysis adjusting for potential confounders confirmed that the association between education and help-seeking for nipple rash was fully mediated by symptom concern.

CONCLUSIONS

Socioeconomic inequalities in stage at diagnosis and survival of breast cancer may not always be explained by lower likelihood of suspecting cancer and subsequent impact on help-seeking. Reducing inequalities in stage at diagnosis will involve understanding a broader range of bio-psycho-social factors (eg, comorbidities and healthcare system factors).

Estimating the impact of a cancer diagnosis on life expectancy by socio-economic group for a range of cancer types in England

BACKGROUND

Differences in cancer survival exist across socio-economic groups for many cancer types. Standard metrics fail to show the overall impact for patients and the population.

METHODS

The available data consist of a population of ∼2.5 million patients and include all patients recorded as being diagnosed with melanoma, prostate, bladder, breast, colon, rectum, lung, ovarian and stomach cancers in England between 1998 and 2013. We estimated the average loss in expectation of life per patient in years and the proportion of life lost for a range of cancer types, separately by deprivation group. In addition, estimates for the total number of years lost due to each cancer were also obtained.

RESULTS

Lung and stomach cancers result in the highest overall loss for males and females in all deprivation groups in terms of both absolute life years lost and loss as a proportion of expected life remaining. Female lung cancer patients in the least- and most-deprived group lose 14.4 and 13.8 years on average, respectively, that is translated as 86.1% and 87.3% of their average expected life years remaining. Melanoma, prostate and breast cancers have the lowest overall loss. On the basis of the number of patients diagnosed in 2013, lung cancer results in the most life years lost in total followed by breast cancer. Melanoma and bladder cancer account for the lowest total life years lost.

CONCLUSIONS

There are wide differences in the impact of cancer on life expectancy across deprivation groups, and for most cancers the most affluent lose less years.

Geographical differences in risk of advanced breast cancer: Limited evidence for reductions over time, Queensland, Australia 1997-2014

BACKGROUND

Reducing geographical inequalities in breast cancer stage remains a key focus of public health policy. We explored whether patterns of advanced breast cancer by residential accessibility and disadvantage in Queensland, Australia, have changed over time.

METHODS

Population-based cancer registry study of 38,706 women aged at least 30 years diagnosed with a first primary invasive breast cancer of known stage between 1997 and 2014. Multilevel logistic regression was used to examine temporal changes in associations of area-level factors with odds of advanced disease after adjustment for individual-level factors.

RESULTS

Overall 19,401 (50%) women had advanced breast cancer. Women from the most disadvantaged areas had higher adjusted odds (OR = 1.23 [95%CI 1.13, 1.32]) of advanced disease than those from least disadvantaged areas, with no evidence this association had changed over time (interaction p = 0.197). Living in less accessible areas independently increased the adjusted odds (OR = 1.18 [1.09, 1.28]) of advanced disease, with some evidence that the geographical inequality had reduced over time (p = 0.045). Sensitivity analyses for un-staged cases showed that the original associations remained, regardless of assumptions made about the true stage distribution.

CONCLUSIONS

Both geographical and residential socioeconomic inequalities in advanced stage diagnoses persist, potentially reflecting barriers in accessing diagnostic services. Given the role of screening mammography in early detection of breast cancer, the lack of population-based data on private screening limits our ability to determine overall participation rates by residential characteristics. Without such data, the efficacy of strategies to reduce inequalities in breast cancer stage will remain compromised.

Typical and atypical presenting symptoms of breast cancer and their associations with diagnostic intervals: Evidence from a national audit of cancer diagnosis

INTRODUCTION

Most symptomatic women with breast cancer have relatively short diagnostic intervals but a substantial minority experience prolonged journeys to diagnosis. Atypical presentations (with symptoms other than breast lump) may be responsible.

METHODS

We examined the presenting symptoms of breast cancer in women using data from a national audit initiative (n=2316). Symptoms were categorised topographically. We investigated variation in the length of the patient interval (time from symptom onset to presentation) and the primary care interval (time from presentation to specialist referral) across symptom groups using descriptive analyses and quantile regression.

RESULTS

A total of 56 presenting symptoms were described: breast lump was the most frequent (83%) followed by non-lump breast symptoms, (e.g. nipple abnormalities (7%) and breast pain (6%)); and non-breast symptoms (e.g. back pain (1%) and weight loss (0.3%)). Greater proportions of women with 'non-lump only' and 'both lump and non-lump' symptoms waited 90days or longer before seeking help compared to those with 'breast lump only' (15% and 20% vs. 7% respectively). Quantile regression indicated that the differences in the patient interval persisted after adjusting for age and ethnicity, but there was little variation in primary care interval for the majority of women.

CONCLUSIONS

About 1 in 6 women with breast cancer present with a large spectrum of symptoms other than breast lump. Women who present with non-lump breast symptoms tend to delay seeking help. Further emphasis of breast symptoms other than breast lump in symptom awareness campaigns is warranted.

Educational differences in responses to breast cancer symptoms: A qualitative comparative study

OBJECTIVE

Advanced stage at diagnosis for breast cancer is associated with lower socio-economic status (SES). We explored what factors in the patient interval (time from noticing a bodily change to first consultation with a health care professional) may contribute to this inequality.

DESIGN

Qualitative comparative study.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews with a sample of women (≥47 years) from higher (n = 15) and lower (n = 15) educational backgrounds, who had experienced at least one potential breast cancer symptom. Half the participants (n = 15) had sought medical help, half had not (n = 15). Without making breast cancer explicit, we elicited women's sense-making around their symptoms and help-seeking decisions.

RESULTS

Containment of symptoms and confidence in acting upon symptoms emerged as two broad themes that differentiated lower and higher educational groups. Women from lower educational backgrounds tended to attribute their breast symptoms to trivial factors and were reticent in using the word 'cancer'. Despite 'knowing' that symptoms could be related to cancer, women with lower education invoked lack of medical knowledge - 'I am not a doctor' - to express uncertainty about interpreting symptoms and accessing help. Women with higher education were confident about interpreting symptoms, seeking information online, and seeking medical help.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that knowledge of breast cancer alone may not explain socio-economic differences in how women respond to breast cancer symptoms as women with lower education had 'reasons' not to react. Research is needed on how to overcome a wider spectrum of psycho-social factors to reduce future inequality. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Seven of ten breast cancers in the UK are diagnosed after people contact their doctor with symptoms. Women from lower socio-economic backgrounds are more likely to be diagnosed with advanced disease. There is little evidence related to potential drivers of this SES inequality. What does this study add? We qualitatively explored socio-economic (SES) differences in help-seeking for breast symptoms. Women with higher education were more confident about interpreting symptoms and navigating health care. Women with lower education were more reluctant to seek help due to fear of cancer.

Socio-economic disparities in long-term cancer survival-10 year follow-up with individual patient data

PURPOSE

Reasons for the social gradient in cancer survival are not fully understood yet. Previous studies were often only able to determine the socio-economic status of the patients from the area they live in, not from their individual socio-economic characteristics.

METHODS

In a multi-centre cohort study with 1633 cancer patients and 10-year follow-up, individual socio-economic position was measured using the indicators: education, job grade, job type, and equivalence income. The effect on survival was measured for each indicator individually, adjusting for age, gender, and medical characteristics. The mediating effect of health behaviour (alcohol and tobacco consumption) was analysed in separate models.

RESULTS

Patients without vocational training were at increased risk of dying (rate ratio (RR) 1.5, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.1-2.2) compared to patients with the highest vocational training; patients with blue collar jobs were at increased risk (RR 1.2; 95% CI 1.0-1.5) compared to patients with white collar jobs; income had a gradual effect (RR for the lowest income compared to highest was 2.7, 95% CI 1.9-3.8). Adding health behaviour to the models did not change the effect estimates considerably. There was no evidence for an effect of school education and job grade on cancer survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with higher income, better vocational training, and white collar jobs survived longer, regardless of disease stage at baseline and of tobacco and alcohol consumption.

Educational differences in likelihood of attributing breast symptoms to cancer: a vignette-based study

BACKGROUND

Stage at diagnosis of breast cancer varies by socio-economic status (SES), with lower SES associated with poorer survival. We investigated associations between SES (indexed by education), and the likelihood of attributing breast symptoms to breast cancer.

METHOD

We conducted an online survey with 961 women (47-92 years) with variable educational levels. Two vignettes depicted familiar and unfamiliar breast changes (axillary lump and nipple rash). Without making breast cancer explicit, women were asked 'What do you think this […..] could be?' After the attribution question, women were asked to indicate their level of agreement with a cancer avoidance statement ('I would not want to know if I have breast cancer').

RESULTS

Women were more likely to mention cancer as a possible cause of an axillary lump (64%) compared with nipple rash (30%). In multivariable analysis, low and mid education were independently associated with being less likely to attribute a nipple rash to cancer (OR 0.51, 0.36-0.73 and OR 0.55, 0.40-0.77, respectively). For axillary lump, low education was associated with lower likelihood of mentioning cancer as a possible cause (OR 0.58, 0.41-0.83). Although cancer avoidance was also associated with lower education, the association between education and lower likelihood of making a cancer attribution was independent.

CONCLUSION

Lower education was associated with lower likelihood of making cancer attributions for both symptoms, also after adjustment for cancer avoidance. Lower likelihood of considering cancer may delay symptomatic presentation and contribute to educational differences in stage at diagnosis. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

How much do tumor stage and treatment explain socioeconomic inequalities in breast cancer survival? Applying causal mediation analysis to population-based data

Substantial socioeconomic inequalities in breast cancer survival persist in England, possibly due to more advanced cancer at diagnosis and differential access to treatment. We aim to disentangle the contributions of differential stage at diagnosis and differential treatment to the socioeconomic inequalities in cancer survival. Information on 36,793 women diagnosed with breast cancer during 2000-2007 was routinely collected by an English population-based cancer registry. Deprivation was determined for each patient according to her area of residence at the time of diagnosis. A parametric implementation of the mediation formula using Monte Carlo simulation was used to estimate the proportion of the effect of deprivation on survival mediated by stage and by treatment. One-third (35 % [23-48 %]) of the higher mortality experienced by most deprived patients at 6 months after diagnosis, and one tenth (14 % [-3 to 31 %]) at 5 years, was mediated by adverse stage distribution. We initially found no evidence of mediation via differential surgical treatment. However, sensitivity analyses testing some of our study limitations showed in particular that up to thirty per cent of the higher mortality in most deprived patients could be mediated by differential surgical treatment. This study illustrates the importance of using causal inference methods with routine medical data and the need for testing key assumptions through sensitivity analyses. Our results suggest that, although effort for earlier diagnosis is important, this would reduce the cancer survival inequalities only by a third. Because of data limitations, role of differential surgical treatment may have been under-estimated.

Socioeconomic inequalities in attitudes towards cancer: an international cancer benchmarking partnership study

Socioeconomic status (SES) differences in attitudes towards cancer have been implicated in the differential screening uptake and the timeliness of symptomatic presentation. However, the predominant emphasis of this work has been on cancer fatalism, and many studies focus on specific community subgroups. This study aimed to assess SES differences in positive and negative attitudes towards cancer in UK adults. A population-based sample of UK adults (n=6965, age≥50 years) completed the Awareness and Beliefs about Cancer scale, including six belief items: three positively framed (e.g. ‘Cancer can often be cured’) and three negatively framed (e.g. ‘A cancer diagnosis is a death sentence’). SES was indexed by education. Analyses controlled for sex, ethnicity, marital status, age, self-rated health, and cancer experience. There were few education-level differences for the positive statements, and overall agreement was high (all>90%). In contrast, there were strong differences for negative statements (all Ps<0.001). Among respondents with lower education levels, 57% agreed that ‘treatment is worse than cancer’, 27% that cancer is ‘a death sentence’ and 16% ‘would not want to know if I have cancer’. Among those with university education, the respective proportions were 34, 17 and 6%. Differences were not explained by cancer experience or health status. In conclusion, positive statements about cancer outcomes attract near-universal agreement. However, this optimistic perspective coexists alongside widespread fears about survival and treatment, especially among less-educated groups. Health education campaigns targeting socioeconomically disadvantaged groups might benefit from a focus on reducing negative attitudes, which is not necessarily achieved by promoting positive attitudes.

An electrochemical glycan biosensor based on a thionine-bridged multiwalled carbon nanotube/gold nanoparticle composite-modified electrode

A MWCNT/Th/AuNP composite, used to construct an electrochemical biosensor for the mannose assay of living cancer cells, contained thionine as an electron mediator and simplified detection based on enzymatic catalysis for signal amplification.

Routes to diagnosis for sarcoma - Describing the sarcoma patient journey

BACKGROUND

Understanding the route to diagnosis for patients with cancer is important to improve the diagnostic pathway and therefore outcomes. We aimed to investigate routes to diagnosis for patients with sarcoma in England.

METHODS

National patient level datasets relating to 7716 soft tissue and 1240 bone sarcoma patients diagnosed between 2006 and 2008 were analysed. Routes to diagnosis were defined as: "Two Week Wait Referral", "GP Referral", "Other Outpatient", "Inpatient Elective", "Emergency Presentation", "Death Certificate Only" and "Unknown".

RESULTS

Patients with sarcoma are most likely to be diagnosed after "GP Referral" or "Emergency Presentation" and are less likely to be referred under a two week wait compared with other malignancies. Patients with bone sarcoma under 10 or over 80 years of age were more likely to present by emergency routes, as were patients with vertebral column, pelvis or unspecified site tumours and those with Ewing's sarcoma or sarcoma NOS. Patients with soft tissue sarcoma under 19 or over 80 years of age and patients with GI tract tumours were more likely to present by emergency routes. Patients presenting by emergency routes more often had metastases and had lower 1 year survival. Patients from least deprived quintiles more often presented by unknown routes: those from more deprived quintiles more often presented by emergency routes.

CONCLUSION

Routes to diagnosis for sarcoma patients differ from other cancers. Interventions to improve the diagnostic experience should consider the very young and elderly, tumours in abdominal, pelvic or spinal locations and on reducing emergency presentations.

Socioeconomic inequalities in prostate cancer survival: A review of the evidence and explanatory factors

Although survival rates after prostate cancer diagnosis have improved in the past two decades, survival analyses regarding the socioeconomic status (SES) suggest inequalities indicating worse prognosis for lower SES groups. An overview of the current literature is lacking and moreover, there is an ongoing discussion about the underlying causes but evidence is comparatively sparse. Several patient, disease and health care related factors are discussed to have an important impact on disparities in survival. Therefore, a systematic review was conducted to sum up the current evidence of survival inequalities and the contribution of different potential explanatory factors among prostate cancer patients. The PubMed database was screened for relevant articles published between January 2005 and September 2014 revealing 330 potentially eligible publications. After systematic review process, 46 papers met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. About 75% of the studies indicate a significant association between low SES and worse survival among prostate cancer patients in the fully adjusted model. Overall, hazard ratios (low versus high SES) range from 1.02 to 3.57. A decrease of inequalities over the years was not identified. 8 studies examined the impact of explanatory factors on the association between SES and survival by progressive adjustment indicating mediating effects of comorbidity, stage at diagnosis and treatment modalities. Eventually, an apparent majority of the obtained studies indicates lower survival among patients with lower SES. The few studies that intend to explain inequalities found out instructive results regarding different contributing factors but evidence is still insufficient.

Primary care characteristics and stage of cancer at diagnosis using data from the national cancer registration service, quality outcomes framework and general practice information

Background

Survival from cancer is worse in England than in some European countries. To improve survival, strategies in England have focused on early presentation (reducing delay to improve stage at diagnosis), improving quality of care and ensuring equity throughout the patient pathway. We assessed whether primary care characteristics were associated with later stage cancer at diagnosis (stages 3/4 versus 1/2) for female breast, lung, colorectal and prostate cancer.

Methods

Data obtained from the National Cancer Registration Service, Quality Outcomes Framework, GP survey and GP workforce census, linked by practice code. Risk differences (RD) were calculated by primary care characteristics using a generalised linear model, accounting for patient clustering within practices. Models were adjusted for age, sex and an area-based deprivation measure.

Results

For female breast cancer, being with a practice with a higher two week wait (TWW) referral rate (RD −1.8 % (95 % CI −0.5 % to −3.2 %) p = 0.003) and a higher TWW detection rate (RD −1.7 % (95 % CI −0.3 % to −3.0 %) p = 0.003) was associated with a lower proportion diagnosed later. Being at a practice where people thought it less easy to book at appointment was associated with a higher percentage diagnosed later (RD 1.8 % (95 % CI 0.2 % to 3.4 %) p = 0.03). For lung cancer, being at practices with higher TWW referral rates was associated with lower proportion advanced (RD-3.6 % (95 % CI −1.8 %, −5.5 %) p < 0.001) whereas being at practices with more patients per GP was associated with higher proportion advanced (RD1.8 % (95 % CI 0.2, 3.4) p = 0.01). A higher rate of gastrointestinal investigations was associated with a lower proportion of later stage colorectal cancers (RD −2.0 % (95 % CI −0.6 % to −3.6 %) p = 0.01). No organisational characteristics were associated with prostate cancer stage.

Conclusion

Easier access to primary care, faster referral and more investigation for gastrointestinal symptoms could reduce the proportion of people diagnosed later for female breast, lung and colorectal, but not prostate cancer. Differences between the four main cancers suggest different policies may be required for individual cancers to improve outcomes.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12885-015-1497-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Carbohydrate derivative-functionalized biosensing toward highly sensitive electrochemical detection of cell surface glycan expression as cancer biomarker

Accurate and highly sensitive detection of glycan expression on cell surface is extremely important for cancer diagnosis and therapy. Herein, a carbohydrate derivative-functionalized biosensor was developed for electrochemical detection of the expression level of cell surface glycan (mannose used as model). Thiomannosyl dimer was synthesized to design the thiomannosyl-functionalized biosensor by direct and rapid one-step protocols. The biosensing surface-confined mannose could effectively mimic the presentation of cell surface mannose and was responsible for competing with mannose on cancer cells in incubation solution. Greatly enhanced sensitivity was achieved by exploiting the excellent conductivity of multiwalled carbon nanotube/Au nanoparticle (MWNT/AuNP), the amplification effect of MWNTs, and the favorable catalytic ability of horseradish peroxidase (HRP). Using competitive strategy, the developed biosensor exhibits attractive performances for the analysis of mannose expression with rapid response, high sensitivity and accuracy, and possesses great promise for evaluation of cell surface glycan expression by using a greater variety of lectins.

The impact of eliminating age inequalities in stage at diagnosis on breast cancer survival for older women

BACKGROUND

Older women with breast cancer have poorer relative survival outcomes, but whether achieving earlier stage at diagnosis would translate to substantial reductions in mortality is uncertain.

METHODS

We analysed data on East of England women with breast cancer (2006-2010) aged 70+ years. We estimated survival for different stage-deprivation-age group strata using both the observed and a hypothetical stage distribution (assuming that all women aged 75+ years acquired the stage distribution of those aged 70-74 years). We subsequently estimated deaths that could be postponed beyond 5 years from diagnosis if women aged 75+ years had the hypothetical stage distribution. We projected findings to the English population using appropriate age and socioeconomic group weights.

RESULTS

For a typically sized annual cohort in the East of England, 27 deaths in women with breast cancer aged 75+ years can be postponed within 5 years from diagnosis if their stage distribution matched that of the women aged 70-74 years (4.8% of all 566 deaths within 5 years post diagnosis in this population). Under assumptions, we estimate that the respective number for England would be 280 deaths (5.0% of all deaths within 5 years post diagnosis in this population).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings support ongoing development of targeted campaigns aimed at encouraging prompt presentation in older women.

Estimating the potential survival gains by eliminating socioeconomic and sex inequalities in stage at diagnosis of melanoma

BACKGROUND

Although inequalities in cancer survival are thought to reflect inequalities in stage at diagnosis, little evidence exists about the size of potential survival gains from eliminating inequalities in stage at diagnosis.

METHODS

We used data on patients diagnosed with malignant melanoma in the East of England (2006-2010) to estimate the number of deaths that could be postponed by completely eliminating socioeconomic and sex differences in stage at diagnosis after fitting a flexible parametric excess mortality model.

RESULTS

Stage was a strong predictor of survival. There were pronounced socioeconomic and sex inequalities in the proportion of patients diagnosed at stages III-IV (12 and 8% for least deprived men and women and 25 and 18% for most deprived men and women, respectively). For an annual cohort of 1025 incident cases in the East of England, eliminating sex and deprivation differences in stage at diagnosis would postpone approximately 24 deaths to beyond 5 years from diagnosis. Using appropriate weighting, the equivalent estimate for England would be around 215 deaths, representing 11% of all deaths observed within 5 years from diagnosis in this population.

CONCLUSIONS

Reducing socioeconomic and sex inequalities in stage at diagnosis would result in substantial reductions in deaths within 5 years of a melanoma diagnosis.

Age-related socio-economic and geographic disparities in breast cancer stage at diagnosis: a population-based study

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to determine the impact of socio-economic and geographic disparities on disease stage at diagnosis according to age in breast cancer (BC) patients. Secondary purpose was to describe survival

METHODS

All women with primary invasive BC, diagnosed from 1998 to 2009 in the department of Côte d'Or were retrospectively selected using data from the Côte d'Or BC registry. European transnational ecological deprivation index (French European Deprivation Index) was used to measure the socio-economic environment. Relationships between socio-geographic deprivation and disease stage at diagnosis according to age were assessed by a multilevel ordered logistic regression model. Relative survival rates (RSRs) were given at 5 years according to tumour and patients characteristics.

RESULTS

In total, 4364 women were included. In multivariable analysis, socio-economic deprivation was associated with disease stage at diagnosis. Women aged between 50 and 74 years and living in deprived areas were more often diagnosed with advanced tumour stages (stages II/III vs. I or stages IV vs. II/III) with odds ratio = 1.27 (1.01-1.60). RSRs were lowest in women living in the most deprived area compared with those living in most affluent area with RSR = 88.4% (85.9-90.4) and 92.6% (90.5-94.2), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Socio-economic factors affected tumour stage at diagnosis and survival. Living in a deprived area was linked to advanced-stage BC at diagnosis only in women aged 50-74 years. This is probably due to the socio-economic disparities in participation in organized BC screening programmes. Furthermore, living in deprived area was associated with a poor survival rate.

Unemployment, public-sector health-care spending and breast cancer mortality in the European Union: 1990-2009

BACKGROUND

The global economic crisis has been associated with increased unemployment, reduced health-care spending and adverse health outcomes. Insights into the impact of economic variations on cancer mortality, however, remain limited.

METHODS

We used multivariate regression analysis to assess how changes in unemployment and public-sector expenditure on health care (PSEH) varied with female breast cancer mortality in the 27 European Union member states from 1990 to 2009. We then determined how the association with unemployment was modified by PSEH. Country-specific differences in infrastructure and demographic structure were controlled for, and 1-, 3-, 5- and 10-year lag analyses were conducted. Several robustness checks were also implemented.

RESULTS

Unemployment was associated with an increase in breast cancer mortality [P < 0.0001, coefficient (R) = 0.1829, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.0978-0.2680]. Lag analysis showed a continued increase in breast cancer mortality at 1, 3, 5 and 10 years after unemployment rises (P < 0.05). Controlling for PSEH removed this association (P = 0.063, R = 0.080, 95% CI -0.004 to 0.163). PSEH increases were associated with significant decreases in breast cancer mortality (P < 0.0001, R = -1.28, 95% CI -1.67 to -0.877). The association between unemployment and breast cancer mortality remained in all robustness checks.

CONCLUSION

Rises in unemployment are associated with significant short- and long-term increases in breast cancer mortality, while increases in PSEH are associated with reductions in breast cancer mortality. Initiatives that bolster employment and maintain total health-care expenditure may help minimize increases in breast cancer mortality during economic crises.

Socioeconomic deprivation and cancer survival in Germany: an ecological analysis in 200 districts in Germany

Although socioeconomic inequalities in cancer survival have been demonstrated both within and between countries, evidence on the variation of the inequalities over time past diagnosis is sparse. Furthermore, no comprehensive analysis of socioeconomic differences in cancer survival in Germany has been conducted. Therefore, we analyzed variations in cancer survival for patients diagnosed with one of the 25 most common cancer sites in 1997-2006 in ten population-based cancer registries in Germany (covering 32 million inhabitants). Patients were assigned a socioeconomic status according to the district of residence at diagnosis. Period analysis was used to derive 3-month, 5-year and conditional 1-year and 5-year age-standardized relative survival for 2002-2006 for each deprivation quintile in Germany. Relative survival of patients living in the most deprived district was compared to survival of patients living in all other districts by model-based period analysis. For 21 of 25 cancer sites, 5-year relative survival was lower in the most deprived districts than in all other districts combined. The median relative excess risk of death over the 25 cancer sites decreased from 1.24 in the first 3 months to 1.16 in the following 9 months to 1.08 in the following 4 years. Inequalities persisted after adjustment for stage. These major regional socioeconomic inequalities indicate a potential for improving cancer care and survival in Germany. Studies on individual-level patient data with access to treatment information should be conducted to examine the reasons for these socioeconomic inequalities in cancer survival in more detail.

The association of waiting times from diagnosis to surgery with survival in women with localised breast cancer in England

BACKGROUND

Survival from breast cancer in the United Kingdom is lower than in other developed countries. It is unclear to what extent waiting times for curative surgery affect survival.

METHODS

Using national databases for England (cancer registries, Hospital Episode Statistics and Office of National Statistics), we identified 53 689 women with localised breast cancer, aged ≥ 15 years, diagnosed between 1996 and 2009, who had surgical resection with curative intent within 62 days of diagnosis. We used relative survival and excess risk modelling to determine associations between waiting times and 5-year survival.

RESULTS

The median diagnosis to curative surgery waiting time among breast cancer patients was 22 days (interquartile range (IQR): 15-30). Relative survival was similar among women waiting between 25 and 38 days (RS: 93.5%; 95% CI: 92.8-94.2%), <25 days (RS: 93.0%; 95% CI: 92.5-93.4%) and between 39 and 62 days (RS: 92.1%; 95% CI: 90.8-93.4%). There was little evidence of an increase in excess mortality with longer waiting times (excess hazard ratio (EHR): 1.06; 95% CI: 0.88-1.27 comparing waiting times 39-62 with 25-38 days). Excess mortality was associated with age (EHR 65-74 vs 15-44 year olds: 1.23; 95% CI: 1.07-1.41) and deprivation (EHR most vs least deprived: 1.28; 95% CI: 1.09-1.49), but waiting times did not explain these differences.

CONCLUSION

Within 62 days of diagnosis, decreasing waiting times from diagnosis to surgery had little impact on survival from localised breast cancer.