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Roselli GE, Kerruish DWM, Crow M, Smart KA, Powell CD. The two faces of microorganisms in traditional brewing and the implications for no- and low-alcohol beers. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1346724. [PMID: 38440137 PMCID: PMC10910910 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1346724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024] Open
Abstract
The production of alcoholic beverages is intrinsically linked to microbial activity. This is because microbes such as yeast are associated with the production of ethanol and key sensorial compounds that produce desirable qualities in fermented products. However, the brewing industry and other related sectors face a step-change in practice, primarily due to the growth in sales of no- and low-alcohol (NoLo) alternatives to traditional alcoholic products. Here we review the involvement of microbes across the brewing process, including both their positive contributions and their negative (spoilage) effects. We also discuss the opportunities for exploiting microbes for NoLo beer production, as well as the spoilage risks associated with these products. For the latter, we highlight differences in composition and process conditions between traditional and NoLo beers and discuss how these may impact the microbial ecosystem of each product stream in relation to microbiological stability and final beer quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia E. Roselli
- Division of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Brewing Science, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Loughborough, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
| | | | - Matthew Crow
- Diageo International Technical Centre, Menstrie, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Katherine A. Smart
- Diageo International Technical Centre, Menstrie, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Chris D. Powell
- Division of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Brewing Science, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Loughborough, Leicestershire, United Kingdom
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2
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Carrascosa C, Raheem D, Ramos F, Saraiva A, Raposo A. Microbial Biofilms in the Food Industry-A Comprehensive Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18042014. [PMID: 33669645 PMCID: PMC7922197 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18042014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Biofilms, present as microorganisms and surviving on surfaces, can increase food cross-contamination, leading to changes in the food industry’s cleaning and disinfection dynamics. Biofilm is an association of microorganisms that is irreversibly linked with a surface, contained in an extracellular polymeric substance matrix, which poses a formidable challenge for food industries. To avoid biofilms from forming, and to eliminate them from reversible attachment and irreversible stages, where attached microorganisms improve surface adhesion, a strong disinfectant is required to eliminate bacterial attachments. This review paper tackles biofilm problems from all perspectives, including biofilm-forming pathogens in the food industry, disinfectant resistance of biofilm, and identification methods. As biofilms are largely responsible for food spoilage and outbreaks, they are also considered responsible for damage to food processing equipment. Hence the need to gain good knowledge about all of the factors favouring their development or growth, such as the attachment surface, food matrix components, environmental conditions, the bacterial cells involved, and electrostatic charging of surfaces. Overall, this review study shows the real threat of biofilms in the food industry due to the resistance of disinfectants and the mechanisms developed for their survival, including the intercellular signalling system, the cyclic nucleotide second messenger, and biofilm-associated proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conrado Carrascosa
- Department of Animal Pathology and Production, Bromatology and Food Technology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Trasmontaña s/n, 35413 Arucas, Spain;
- Correspondence: (C.C.); (A.R.)
| | - Dele Raheem
- Northern Institute for Environmental and Minority Law (NIEM), Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, 96101 Rovaniemi, Finland;
| | - Fernando Ramos
- Pharmacy Faculty, University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal;
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, R. D. Manuel II, 55142 Apartado, Portugal
| | - Ariana Saraiva
- Department of Animal Pathology and Production, Bromatology and Food Technology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Trasmontaña s/n, 35413 Arucas, Spain;
| | - António Raposo
- CBIOS (Research Center for Biosciences and Health Technologies), Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal
- Correspondence: (C.C.); (A.R.)
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3
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Rodríguez-Saavedra M, González de Llano D, Beltran G, Torija MJ, Moreno-Arribas MV. Pectinatus spp. - Unpleasant and recurrent brewing spoilage bacteria. Int J Food Microbiol 2020; 336:108900. [PMID: 33129006 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2020.108900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Traditionally, beer has been recognised as a beverage with high microbiological stability because of the hostile growth environment posed by beer and increasing attention being paid to brewery hygiene. However, the microbiological risk has increased in recent years because of technological advances toward reducing oxygen in beers, besides the increase in novel beer styles production, such as non-pasteurised, flash pasteurised, cold sterilised, mid-strength, and alcoholic-free beer, that are more prone to spoilage bacteria. Moreover, using innovative beer ingredients like fruits and vegetables is an added cause of microbial spoilage. To maintain quality and good brand image, beer spoilage microorganisms are a critical concern for breweries worldwide. Pectinatus and Megasphaera are Gram-negative bacteria mostly found in improper brewing environments, leading to consumer complaints and financial losses. Because of the lack of compiled scientific knowledge on Pectinatus spoilage ability, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the occurrence, survival mechanisms, and the factors affecting beer spoilage Pectinatus species in the brewing process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magaly Rodríguez-Saavedra
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación (CIAL), CSIC-UAM, c/ Nicolás Cabrera, 29049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Dolores González de Llano
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación (CIAL), CSIC-UAM, c/ Nicolás Cabrera, 29049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Gemma Beltran
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Marcel·lí Domingo, 1, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - María-Jesús Torija
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biotecnologia, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Marcel·lí Domingo, 1, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - M Victoria Moreno-Arribas
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación (CIAL), CSIC-UAM, c/ Nicolás Cabrera, 29049 Madrid, Spain.
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4
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Kramer T, Kelleher P, van der Meer J, O'Sullivan T, Geertman JMA, Duncan SH, Flint HJ, Louis P. Comparative genetic and physiological characterisation of Pectinatus species reveals shared tolerance to beer-associated stressors but halotolerance specific to pickle-associated strains. Food Microbiol 2020; 90:103462. [PMID: 32336380 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2020.103462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Obligate anaerobic bacteria from the genus Pectinatus have been known to cause beer spoilage for over 40 years. Whole genome sequencing was performed on eleven beer spoilage strains (nine Pectinatus frisingensis, one Pectinatus cerevisiiphilus and one Pectinatus haikarae isolate), as well as two pickle spoilage species (Pectinatus brassicae MB591 and Pectinatus sottacetonis MB620) and the tolerance of all species to a range of environmental conditions was tested. Exploration of metabolic pathways for carbohydrates, amino acids and vitamins showed little difference between beer spoilage- and pickle spoilage-associated strains. However, genes for certain carbohydrate- and sulphur-containing amino acid-associated enzymes were only present in the beer spoilage group and genes for specific transporters and regulatory genes were uniquely found in the pickle spoilage group. Transporters for compatible solutes, only present in pickle-associated strains, likely explain their experimentally observed higher halotolerance compared to the beer spoilers. Genes involved in biofilm formation and ATP Binding Cassette (ABC) transporters potentially capable of exporting hop-derived antimicrobial compounds were found in all strains. All species grew in the presence of alcohol up to 5% alcohol by volume (ABV) and hops extract up to 80 ppm of iso-α-acids. Therefore, the species isolated from pickle processes may pose novel hazards in brewing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Kramer
- University of Aberdeen, The Rowett Institute, Foresterhill, AB25 2ZD, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Philip Kelleher
- APC Microbiome Ireland, Food Science & Technology Building, University College Cork, College Road, Cork, T12 K8AF, Ireland
| | | | - Tadhg O'Sullivan
- Heineken Supply Chain B.V., Burgemeester Smeetsweg 1, 2382 PH, Zoeterwoude, the Netherlands
| | - Jan-Maarten A Geertman
- Heineken Supply Chain B.V., Burgemeester Smeetsweg 1, 2382 PH, Zoeterwoude, the Netherlands
| | - Sylvia H Duncan
- University of Aberdeen, The Rowett Institute, Foresterhill, AB25 2ZD, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Harry J Flint
- University of Aberdeen, The Rowett Institute, Foresterhill, AB25 2ZD, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Petra Louis
- University of Aberdeen, The Rowett Institute, Foresterhill, AB25 2ZD, Aberdeen, United Kingdom.
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5
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Condina MR, Dilmetz BA, Razavi Bazaz S, Meneses J, Ebrahimi Warkiani M, Hoffmann P. Rapid separation and identification of beer spoilage bacteria by inertial microfluidics and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. LAB ON A CHIP 2019; 19:1961-1970. [PMID: 31099359 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc00152b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), in combination with Biotyper software, is a rapid, high-throughput, and accurate method for the identification of microbes. Microbial outbreaks in a brewery present a major risk for companies as it can lead to cost-intensive recalls and damage to the brand reputation. MALDI-TOF MS has been implemented into a brewery setting for quality control practices and the identification of beer spoilage microorganisms. However, the applicability of this approach is hindered by compatibility issues associated with mixed cultures, requiring the use of time-consuming selective cultivation techniques prior to identification. We propose a novel, low-cost approach based on the combination of inertial microfluidics and secondary flows in a spiral microchannel for high-throughput and efficient separation of yeasts (Saccharomyces pastorianus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) from beer spoilage microorganisms (Lactobacillus brevis and Pediococcus damnosus). Flow rates were optimised using S. pastorianus and L. brevis, leading to separation of more than 90% of the L. brevis cells from yeast. The microorganisms were then identified to the species level using the MALDI-TOF MS platform using standard sample preparation protocols. This study shows the high-throughput and rapid separation of spoilage microorganisms (0.3-3 μm) from background yeast (5 μm) from beer, subsequent identification using MALDI Biotyper, and the potential applicability of the approach for biological control in the brewing industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Condina
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia.
| | - Brooke A Dilmetz
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia.
| | - Sajad Razavi Bazaz
- School of Biomedical Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Australia.
| | | | - Majid Ebrahimi Warkiani
- School of Biomedical Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Australia. and Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Peter Hoffmann
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia.
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6
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Matoulková D, Kosař K, Slabý M, Sigler K. Occurrence and Species Distribution of Strictly Anaerobic BacteriumPectinatusin Brewery Bottling Halls. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF BREWING CHEMISTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1094/asbcj-2012-0910-01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dagmar Matoulková
- Research Institute of Brewing and Malting, Department of Microbiology, Lípová 15, 120 44 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Kosař
- Research Institute of Brewing and Malting, Department of Microbiology, Lípová 15, 120 44 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Slabý
- Research Institute of Brewing and Malting, Department of Microbiology, Lípová 15, 120 44 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Sigler
- Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i., Vídeňská 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic
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7
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Ziola B. Monoclonal Antibodies Binding to Lipopolysaccharide from the Beer-Spoilage Bacterium Megasphaera Cerevisiae Exhibit Panreactivity with the Strictly Anaerobic Gram-Negative Brewing-Related Bacteria. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF BREWING CHEMISTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1094/asbcj-2016-4895-01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Barry Ziola
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Room 2841 Royal University Hospital, 103 Hospital Drive, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 0W8, Canada
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8
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Pittet V, Haakensen M, Chaban B, Ziola B. Detection and Identification of Pectinatus Brewery Contaminants Based on the Gene for the Major Outer Membrane Protein. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF BREWING CHEMISTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1094/asbcj-2014-0610-02] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Pittet
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Room 2841 Royal University Hospital, 103 Hospital Drive, Saskatoon, SK Canada S7N 0W8
- Contango Strategies Ltd, 15-410 Downey Road, Saskatoon, SK Canada S7N 4N1
| | - Monique Haakensen
- Contango Strategies Ltd, 15-410 Downey Road, Saskatoon, SK Canada S7N 4N1
| | - Bonnie Chaban
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK Canada, S7N 5B4
| | - Barry Ziola
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Room 2841 Royal University Hospital, 103 Hospital Drive, Saskatoon, SK Canada S7N 0W8
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9
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Wang W, Liu Y, Sun Z, Du G, Li X. Hop resistance and beer-spoilage features of foodborne Bacillus cereus newly isolated from filtration-sterilized draft beer. ANN MICROBIOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s13213-016-1232-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
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10
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The chemistry of sour taste and the strategy to reduce the sour taste of beer. Food Chem 2015; 185:200-4. [PMID: 25952858 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Revised: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The contributions of free hydrogen ions, undissociated hydrogen ions in protonated acid species, and anionic acid species to sour taste were studied through sensory experiments. According to tasting results, it can be inferred that the basic substance producing a sour taste is the hydrogen ion, including free hydrogen ions and undissociated hydrogen ions. The intensity of a sour taste is determined by the total concentration of free hydrogen ions and undissociated hydrogen ions. The anionic acid species (without hydrogen ions) does not produce a sour taste but can intensify or weaken the intensity of a sour taste. It seems that hydroxyl or conjugated groups in anionic acid species can intensify the sour taste produced by hydrogen ions. The following strategy to reduce the sensory sourness is advanced: not only reduce free hydrogen ions, namely elevate pH value, but also reduce the undissociated hydrogen ions contained in protonated acid species.
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11
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Felsberg J, Jelínková M, Kubizniaková P, Matoulková D. Development of a species-specific PCR assay for identification of the strictly anaerobic bacterium Selenomonas lacticifex found in biofilm-covered surfaces in brewery bottling halls. J Appl Microbiol 2014; 117:1328-35. [PMID: 25066481 DOI: 10.1111/jam.12610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS In recent years, beer-spoilage cases from strictly anaerobic bacteria have risen in frequency, in connection with the production of non-pasteurized, non-alcohol and low-alcoholic beers and with the lowering of dissolved oxygen in the packaged beer. Selenomonas lacticifex, found in brewer's yeast and in biofilms covering some surfaces in brewery bottling area, is considered to be a beer-spoilage organism. This study aims to develop S. lacticifex-specific PCR assay. The objective of this study was also evaluation of the specificity and reproducibility of the developed PCR assay in real brewery samples. METHODS AND RESULTS Three primers (one forward and two reverse) were designed for identification of the strictly anaerobic bacterium S. lacticifex on the basis of the species-specific sequences of the 16S rDNA region. The specificity of the primers was tested against 44 brewery-related non-target micro-organisms that could potentially occur in the same brewery specimens. None of the primer pairs amplified DNA from any of the non-S. lacticifex strains tested including genera from the same family (Pectinatus, Megasphaera, Zymophilus) and the closely related species Selenomonas ruminantium, showing thus 100% specificity. CONCLUSIONS The PCR assay developed in this study enables the detection of the strictly anaerobic bacterium S. lacticifex in real brewery samples including pitching yeast. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Selenomonas lacticifex-specific PCR assay developed in this study allows for the extension of the spectra of detected beer-spoilage micro-organisms in brewing laboratories and thus lowering the risk of contamination of the final product.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Felsberg
- Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
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12
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Wieme AD, Spitaels F, Aerts M, De Bruyne K, Van Landschoot A, Vandamme P. Identification of beer-spoilage bacteria using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Int J Food Microbiol 2014; 185:41-50. [PMID: 24929682 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2014] [Revised: 04/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Applicability of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) for identification of beer-spoilage bacteria was examined. To achieve this, an extensive identification database was constructed comprising more than 4200 mass spectra, including biological and technical replicates derived from 273 acetic acid bacteria (AAB) and lactic acid bacteria (LAB), covering a total of 52 species, grown on at least three growth media. Sequence analysis of protein coding genes was used to verify aberrant MALDI-TOF MS identification results and confirmed the earlier misidentification of 34 AAB and LAB strains. In total, 348 isolates were collected from culture media inoculated with 14 spoiled beer and brewery samples. Peak-based numerical analysis of MALDI-TOF MS spectra allowed a straightforward species identification of 327 (94.0%) isolates. The remaining isolates clustered separately and were assigned through sequence analysis of protein coding genes either to species not known as beer-spoilage bacteria, and thus not present in the database, or to novel AAB species. An alternative, classifier-based approach for the identification of spoilage bacteria was evaluated by combining the identification results obtained through peak-based cluster analysis and sequence analysis of protein coding genes as a standard. In total, 263 out of 348 isolates (75.6%) were correctly identified at species level and 24 isolates (6.9%) were misidentified. In addition, the identification results of 50 isolates (14.4%) were considered unreliable, and 11 isolates (3.2%) could not be identified. The present study demonstrated that MALDI-TOF MS is well-suited for the rapid, high-throughput and accurate identification of bacteria isolated from spoiled beer and brewery samples, which makes the technique appropriate for routine microbial quality control in the brewing industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneleen D Wieme
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Brewing, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Freek Spitaels
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Maarten Aerts
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Katrien De Bruyne
- Applied Maths N.V., Keistraat 120, B-9830 Sint-Martens-Latem, Belgium
| | - Anita Van Landschoot
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Brewing, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Valentin Vaerwyckweg 1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Peter Vandamme
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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Paradh A, Hill A, Mitchell W. Detection of beer spoilage bacteria Pectinatus and Megasphaera with acridinium ester labelled DNA probes using a hybridisation protection assay. J Microbiol Methods 2014; 96:25-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2013.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2013] [Revised: 10/19/2013] [Accepted: 10/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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14
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Vriesekoop F, Krahl M, Hucker B, Menz G. 125thAnniversary Review: Bacteria in brewing: The good, the bad and the ugly. JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/jib.49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Frank Vriesekoop
- Department of Food Science and Agri-Food Supply Chain Management; Harper Adams University; Newport TF10 8NB UK
- School of Health Sciences; University of Ballarat; Ballarat Victoria Australia
| | | | - Barry Hucker
- School of Health Sciences; University of Ballarat; Ballarat Victoria Australia
| | - Garry Menz
- School of Health Sciences; University of Ballarat; Ballarat Victoria Australia
- Carlton and United Breweries; Yatala Brewery; Yatala Queensland Australia
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