1
|
Boyle MA, Hoffmann AN, Horn J, Badger S, Gaskill LA. Approaches for Treating Multiply Controlled Problem Behavior. Behav Anal Pract 2024; 17:53-69. [PMID: 38405283 PMCID: PMC10891003 DOI: 10.1007/s40617-023-00858-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
A portion of problem behavior is maintained by multiple reinforcement contingencies. Treating multiply controlled problem behavior may be more complex than treating problem behavior maintained by a single contingency. Several approaches for addressing multiply controlled problem behavior have been described in the literature. The purpose of this review is to provide practitioners with an overview of function-based approaches for addressing multiply controlled problem behavior. In particular, we present guidelines for functional analysis and treatment. We also describe strengths and limitations of published treatment approaches and discuss strategies for mitigating these limitations. Finally, we describe areas for future research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megan A. Boyle
- Upstate Caring Partners, 125 Business Park, Utica, NY 13502 USA
| | | | - Jon Horn
- Upstate Caring Partners, 125 Business Park, Utica, NY 13502 USA
| | - Sean Badger
- Upstate Caring Partners, 125 Business Park, Utica, NY 13502 USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Rahaman JA, Luczynski KC. Evaluating the efficacy and generality of a skill-based approach for promoting universal behavioral readiness. J Appl Behav Anal 2024; 57:131-152. [PMID: 38158227 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.1028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Behavioral readiness can take the form of communication and self-control skills during challenging situations that are correlated with the development of problem behavior. A skill-based approach can teach behavioral readiness using procedures that involve synthesized reinforcement, probabilistic reinforcement, and contingency-based delays; however, this approach is commonly used to address severe behavior under specific situations. There is limited research evaluating a skill-based approach to teaching behavioral readiness and addressing emerging problem behavior. Also, it is unclear whether teaching effects under specific situations transfer across other, functionally distinct, situations. We evaluated the generality of a skill-based approach by teaching skills systematically across primary challenging situations involving the interruption of play, presentation of instructions, and removal of reinforcers. Teaching increased communication and self-control skills, and most skills transferred to secondary challenging situations (treatment extension probes) and caregiver-implemented sessions. We discuss challenging situations that required teaching, the generality of teaching, and procedural considerations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Javid A Rahaman
- Prosocial Interactions Program, University of Nebraska Medical Center's Munroe-Meyer Institute, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Kevin C Luczynski
- Prosocial Interactions Program, University of Nebraska Medical Center's Munroe-Meyer Institute, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Layman LN, Dufrene BA, Ackley MM, Weaver CM, Schneider DE, LaBrot ZC, Taylor CN, Rahaman JA, Tawney KN, Hart T, Olmi DJ. Interview-Informed Synthesized Contingency Analyses on Challenging Problem Behavior: a Single-Case Meta-analysis. REVIEW JOURNAL OF AUTISM AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s40489-023-00357-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
|
4
|
Melanson IJ, Fahmie TA. Functional analysis of problem behavior: A 40-year review. J Appl Behav Anal 2023; 56:262-281. [PMID: 36892835 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/10/2023]
Abstract
Extensive reviews of functional analysis literature were conducted 10 (Beavers et al., 2013) and 20 (Hanley et al., 2003) years ago; we expanded this review to capture the vast and innovative functional analysis research that has occurred over the past decade. Our review produced 1,333 functional analysis outcomes from 326 studies on the functional analysis of problem behavior between June 2012 and May 2022. Some characteristics of functional analysis studies were similar across the current and previous two reviews (e.g., child participants, developmental disability diagnosis, use of line graphs depicting session means, differentiated response outcomes). Other characteristics deviated from the previous two reviews (e.g., increase in autistic representation, outpatient settings, use of supplementary assessments, the inclusion of tangible conditions, and multiple function outcomes; decrease in session durations). We update previously reported participant and methodological characteristics, summarize outcomes, comment on recent trends, and propose future directions in the functional analysis literature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isaac J Melanson
- University of Nebraska Medical Center's Munroe-Meyer Institute, Severe Behavior Department, Omaha, United States
| | - Tara A Fahmie
- University of Nebraska Medical Center's Munroe-Meyer Institute, Severe Behavior Department, Omaha, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Gover HC, Hanley GP, Ruppel KW, Landa RK, Marcus J. Prioritizing choice and assent in the assessment and treatment of food selectivity. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2023; 69:53-65. [PMID: 36743323 PMCID: PMC9897803 DOI: 10.1080/20473869.2022.2123196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Food selectivity affects up to 72% and 45% of individuals with and without disabilities, respectively, and there is a need for interventions that rely on positive, unrestrictive strategies. We evaluated an assessment and treatment package for food selectivity for young children with developmental disabilities that prioritized caregiver collaboration, client autonomy, and did not rely on restrictive procedures (e.g. escape extinction). The process involved: (a) collaborating with caregivers on the selection of foods and design of the children's functional analyses; (b) indirectly and directly measuring food preferences prior to treatment; (c) evaluating the sensitivity of mealtime problem behavior to environmental variables through an interview-informed synthesized contingency analysis (IISCA); and (c) incorporating the assessment results into a progressive treatment process consisting of choice-making opportunities and differential reinforcement of successive approximations to consumption. Children also had the ability to opt in and out of treatment sessions. The treatment was effective in increasing consumption of nonpreferred foods and successfully extended to caregivers. Practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Holly C. Gover
- Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Treatment and Research Institute for Autism Spectrum Disorders, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Western New England University, Springfield, MA, USA
| | - Gregory P. Hanley
- Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Treatment and Research Institute for Autism Spectrum Disorders, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Western New England University, Springfield, MA, USA
| | - Kelsey W. Ruppel
- Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Treatment and Research Institute for Autism Spectrum Disorders, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Western New England University, Springfield, MA, USA
| | - Robin K. Landa
- Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Treatment and Research Institute for Autism Spectrum Disorders, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Western New England University, Springfield, MA, USA
| | - Juliana Marcus
- Vanderbilt Kennedy Center, Treatment and Research Institute for Autism Spectrum Disorders, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Western New England University, Springfield, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Irwin Helvey C, Van Camp CM. Further comparison of isolated and synthesized contingencies in functional analyses. J Appl Behav Anal 2021; 55:154-168. [PMID: 34796961 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Recent research on functional analyses (FAs) has examined the extent to which problem behavior is maintained by single (isolated) or combined (synthesized) reinforcement contingencies. Outcomes of these analyses might differ depending on the sources of information that are used to inform contingencies included in test conditions. The purpose of the current study was to compare the outcomes of isolated FAs and synthesized contingency analyses (SCAs) with 3 participants. Conditions in both analyses were informed by interviews and both unstructured and structured observations. Problem behavior for all 3 participants was maintained by 1 or 2 isolated reinforcers. Results suggested false-positive SCA results for 2 participants. For 1 participant, a second isolated reinforcer was identified following the SCA, indicating the induction of a novel function. Implications for the use of isolated and synthesized consequences are discussed, as well as the predictive validity of the assessments that are used to inform them.
Collapse
|
7
|
Castro-Hostetler M, Greenwald AE, Lewon M. Increasing Access and Quality of Behavior-Analytic Services for the Latinx Population. BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ISSUES 2021; 30:13-38. [PMID: 38624718 PMCID: PMC8437337 DOI: 10.1007/s42822-021-00064-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Latinxs are the largest minority group in the United States, making up approximately 18% of the total population. Although there is a critical need for the behavioral health care system, including behavior analysts, to provide services to support the needs of the Latinx community, access to quality behavioral and mental health services continues to be lacking for the Black, Indigenous, and people of color populations. This article highlights some of the cultural and language factors that should be considered by behavior-analytic providers who have a shared responsibility to make culturally and linguistically appropriate services available to this population. Additionally, recommendations for systemic action across service providers, professional organizations, behavior-analytic training programs, and researchers are suggested to address these barriers. Recommendations for bringing about this systemic change are suggested across three domains: (a) increasing diversity in the behavior-analytic workforce, (b) enhancing training in cultural- and language-related issues, and (c) conducting research on cultural and language adaptations to behavior-analytic evidence-based treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mariela Castro-Hostetler
- Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, MS 296, 1664 North Virginia Street, Reno, NV 89557 USA
| | | | - Matthew Lewon
- Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, MS 296, 1664 North Virginia Street, Reno, NV 89557 USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ruppel KW, Hanley GP, Landa RK, Rajaraman A. An Evaluation of "Balance": a Home-Based, Parent-Implemented Program Addressing Emerging Problem Behavior. Behav Anal Pract 2021; 14:324-341. [PMID: 34150449 DOI: 10.1007/s40617-020-00490-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Programs that prevent the development of severe problem behavior in young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are critically needed. We describe a program designed to do this, and we report on a preliminary evaluation of its effects with four 3- and 4-year-old children with ASD. Parents served as the primary implementers, with twice-weekly coaching from a Board Certified Behavior Analyst. Direct measures and Aberrant Behavior Checklist scores reflected decreases in emerging problem behavior. Direct measures also reflected increases in child communication, social, and cooperation skills, and parents rated the process as highly acceptable. A randomized controlled trial will be required to evaluate the extent to which the program prevents the development of problem behavior in young children with ASD. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40617-020-00490-3.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey W Ruppel
- Psychology Department, Western New England University, Springfield, MA USA.,Present Address: FTF Behavioral Consulting, 40 Southbridge St., Suite 202, Worcester, MA 01608 USA
| | - Gregory P Hanley
- Psychology Department, Western New England University, Springfield, MA USA.,Present Address: FTF Behavioral Consulting, 40 Southbridge St., Suite 202, Worcester, MA 01608 USA
| | - Robin K Landa
- Psychology Department, Western New England University, Springfield, MA USA.,Present Address: May Institute, Worcester, MA USA
| | - Adithyan Rajaraman
- Psychology Department, Western New England University, Springfield, MA USA.,Present Address: Psychology Department, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Rajaraman A, Hanley GP, Gover HC, Staubitz JL, Staubitz JE, Simcoe KM, Metras R. Minimizing Escalation by Treating Dangerous Problem Behavior Within an Enhanced Choice Model. Behav Anal Pract 2021; 15:219-242. [DOI: 10.1007/s40617-020-00548-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
|
10
|
Tiger JH, Effertz HM. On the validity of data produced by isolated and synthesized contingencies during the functional analysis of problem behavior. J Appl Behav Anal 2020; 54:853-876. [DOI: 10.1002/jaba.792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
|
11
|
Ward SN, Hanley GP, Warner CA, Gage EE. Does teaching an omnibus mand preclude the development of specifying mands? J Appl Behav Anal 2020; 54:248-269. [PMID: 33058160 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
When problem behavior is controlled by a synthesized reinforcement contingency, a simple omnibus mand that yields access to all reinforcers simultaneously has been shown to effectively replace problem behavior. The question arises as to whether teaching an omnibus mand will preclude the acquisition of specifying mands for each of the combined reinforcers. In this study, after 3 students diagnosed with autism acquired an omnibus mand ("My way, please") that yielded all identified reinforcers simultaneously, specifying mands (e.g., "All done," "May I have my toys?" "Play with me") were taught to yield each individual reinforcer (e.g., escape, tangibles, attention). Problem behavior was immediately eliminated for all children, and the omnibus mand was acquired quickly. Teaching an omnibus mand did not preclude acquisition of specifying mands for any learner and instead allowed for the acquisition of specifying mands once problem behavior had been effectively reduced.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shannon N Ward
- Western New England University.,The New England Center for Children
| | | | | | - Ellen E Gage
- Western New England University.,The New England Center for Children
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Ghaemmaghami M, Hanley GP, Jessel J. Functional communication training: From efficacy to effectiveness. J Appl Behav Anal 2020; 54:122-143. [DOI: 10.1002/jaba.762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mahshid Ghaemmaghami
- Department of Psychology Western New England University
- FTF Behavioral Consulting
| | - Gregory P. Hanley
- Department of Psychology Western New England University
- FTF Behavioral Consulting
| | - Joshua Jessel
- Department of Psychology Western New England University
- FTF Behavioral Consulting
- Department of Psychology Queens College
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Rajaraman A, Hanley GP. Mand compliance as a contingency controlling problem behavior: A systematic review. J Appl Behav Anal 2020; 54:103-121. [PMID: 32880964 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Bowman et al. (1997) described a dynamic contingency in which severe problem behavior was evoked by adult noncompliance with a variety of child mands, which occurred at high rates, and was reinforced by adult compliance with subsequent mands. They discovered this phenomenon with 2 children for whom standard functional analyses were inconclusive. In recent years, similar contingencies have been shown to influence problem behavior, but the manner in which they have been arranged and described has varied across studies. The purpose of this literature review is to (a) describe contingencies involving mand compliance and the circumstances under which they have been evaluated, (b) summarize procedural variations in analysis and treatment, and (c) discuss what is known and yet to be discovered about the contingency as it relates to problem behavior. Future research focused on improving technology for analyzing and treating problem behavior suspected to be sensitive to mand compliance is discussed.
Collapse
|
14
|
Abstract
The functional analysis procedures described in the seminal Iwata et al. (1982/1994) study are prominent in the applied behavior analytic literature, having been replicated hundreds of times over the past 30 years (Beavers, Iwata, & Lerman, 2013; Hanley, McCord, Iwata, 2003). However, the extent to which particular components of this functional analysis model have become more or less prominent over time is not clear from these literature reviews. We therefore conducted a review of the functional analysis literature between the years of 1965 and 2016 to determine the trends in the usage of particular components over time and to determine if the published literature reflects a standardization of the manner in which functional analyses of problem behavior are conducted. Furthermore, we discuss whether or not this standardization of a functional analysis model is currently necessary.
Collapse
|
15
|
Reid DH. Contributions of positive behavior support amid lingering questions over its relationship with behavior analysis: A review of Positive behavior supports for adults with disabilities in employment, community, and residential settings by Storey and Post. J Appl Behav Anal 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/jaba.671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
16
|
Holehan KM, Dozier CL, Diaz de Villegas SC, Jess RL, Goddard KS, Foley EA. A comparison of isolated and synthesized contingencies in functional analyses. J Appl Behav Anal 2020; 53:1559-1578. [DOI: 10.1002/jaba.700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Revised: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
17
|
Coffey AL, Shawler LA, Jessel J, Nye ML, Bain TA, Dorsey MF. Interview-Informed Synthesized Contingency Analysis (IISCA): Novel Interpretations and Future Directions. Behav Anal Pract 2020; 13:217-225. [PMID: 32231983 PMCID: PMC7070108 DOI: 10.1007/s40617-019-00348-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The functional analysis (FA) methodology was developed to provide an empirical basis for understanding the reinforcers contributing to the maintenance of problem behavior. Previous research has demonstrated that multiple formats have been established to address some areas, such as practicality, efficiency, and safety. We reviewed the research on a new replication and extension of the standard FA format, the interview-informed synthesized contingency analysis (IISCA) and its subsequent treatment. We discuss the efficiency and effectiveness of the IISCA across various populations, settings, topographies of problem behaviors, and maintaining functions across 17 studies. Common treatment trends, novel developments, and other critical intervention components are also reviewed. We provide suggestions for future directions and guidelines for practitioners when considering the use of the IISCA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Coffey
- 1Endicott College, Beverly, MA USA
- Behavior Network, Inc., McKinney, TX USA
| | - Lesley A Shawler
- 1Endicott College, Beverly, MA USA
- Behavior Network, Inc., McKinney, TX USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Warner CA, Hanley GP, Landa RK, Ruppel KW, Rajaraman A, Ghaemmaghami M, Slaton JD, Gover HC. Toward accurate inferences of response class membership. J Appl Behav Anal 2019; 53:331-354. [DOI: 10.1002/jaba.598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
|
19
|
Retzlaff BJ, Fisher WW, Akers JS, Greer BD. A translational evaluation of potential iatrogenic effects of single and combined contingencies during functional analysis. J Appl Behav Anal 2019; 53:67-81. [PMID: 31282005 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Recent research suggests that combining putative reinforcers for problem behavior into a single, synthesized contingency may increase efficiency in identifying behavioral function relative to traditional functional analysis (FA). Other research suggests potential shortcomings of synthesized contingency analysis (SCA), such as the potential for false-positive outcomes. In prior comparisons of traditional FAs and SCAs, investigators could not ascertain with certainty the true function(s) of the participants' problem behavior for use as the criterion variable. We conducted a translational study to circumvent this limitation by training a specific function for a surrogate destructive behavior prior to conducting a traditional FA and SCA. The traditional FA correctly identified the previously established function of the target response in all six cases and produced no iatrogenic effects. The SCA produced differentiated results in all cases and iatrogenic effects (i.e., an additional function) in three of six cases. We discuss these findings in terms of the mechanisms that may promote iatrogenic effects.
Collapse
|
20
|
Scheithauer M, Schebell SM, Mevers JL, Martin CP, Noell G, Suiter KC, Call NA. A comparison of sources of baseline data for treatments of problem behavior following a functional analysis. J Appl Behav Anal 2019; 53:102-120. [PMID: 30887502 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
It is common practice in research on the treatment of problem behavior to compare levels of targeted behaviors during treatment to levels when treatment is not in place. Some researchers use data collected as part of a multielement functional analysis as the initial baseline, whereas others collect new baseline data following completion of the functional analysis. We evaluated whether the source of baseline data influences the reliability and efficiency of decision-making. Results suggest that similar decisions are made in regard to treatment efficacy using the different sources of baseline data, but using data from a multielement functional analysis as baseline may save time. Interrater agreement was adequate, but lower for some graphs than has been observed in past studies. Several potential explanations for this discrepancy are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Nathan A Call
- Emory University School of Medicine, Marcus Autism Center
| |
Collapse
|