A truncated PACT protein resulting from a frameshift mutation reported in movement disorder DYT16 triggers caspase activation and apoptosis

Endoplasmic reticulum stress exacerbates microplastics-induced toxicity in animal cells

Human and animal exposure to microplastics (MPs) contained in food is inevitable because of their widespread existence in the environment. Nevertheless, MPs toxicity studies in ruminants often lack attention. Here, we assessed the cytotoxicity of polystyrene microplastics (PS MPs) on goat mammary epithelial cells (GMECs). Compared to controls, PS MPs treatment significantly reduced cell viability, altered cell morphology and disrupted organelle integrity. Detection of membrane potential and reactive oxygen species (ROS) suggested that PS MPs induced mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress. Further transcriptome analysis also confirmed alterations in these pathways. In addition, several genes related to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis were significantly regulated in the transcriptional profile. Subsequent experiments confirmed that PS MPs induce ER stress via the PERK/eIF2α/CHOP pathway, accompanied by intracellular Ca2+ overload. Meanwhile, downstream activation of the Bax/Bcl-2 pathway and caspase cascade released apoptotic signals, which led to apoptosis in GMECs. Interestingly, the addition of PERK inhibitor (ISRIB) attenuated PS MPs-induced ER stress and apoptosis, which suggests that ER stress may exacerbate PS MPs-induced cytotoxicity. This work reveals the impact of MPs on mammalian cytotoxicity, enriches the mechanisms for the toxicity of MPs, and provides insight for further assessment of the risk of MPs in food.

Luteolin protects DYT-PRKRA cells from apoptosis by suppressing PKR activation

DYT-PRKRA is a movement disorder caused by mutations in the PRKRA gene, which encodes for PACT, the protein activator of interferon-induced, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-activated protein kinase PKR. PACT brings about PKR's catalytic activation by a direct binding in response to stress signals and activated PKR phosphorylates the translation initiation factor eIF2α. Phosphorylation of eIF2α is the central regulatory event that is part of the integrated stress response (ISR), an evolutionarily conserved intracellular signaling network essential for adapting to environmental stresses to maintain healthy cells. A dysregulation of either the level or the duration of eIF2α phosphorylation in response to stress signals causes the normally pro-survival ISR to become pro-apoptotic. Our research has established that the PRKRA mutations reported to cause DYT-PRKRA lead to enhanced PACT-PKR interactions causing a dysregulation of ISR and an increased sensitivity to apoptosis. We have previously identified luteolin, a plant flavonoid, as an inhibitor of the PACT-PKR interaction using high-throughput screening of chemical libraries. Our results presented in this study indicate that luteolin is markedly effective in disrupting the pathological PACT-PKR interactions to protect DYT-PRKRA cells against apoptosis, thus suggesting a therapeutic option for using luteolin to treat DYT-PRKRA and possibly other diseases resulting from enhanced PACT-PKR interactions.

DYT-PRKRA Mutation P222L Enhances PACT’s Stimulatory Activity on Type I Interferon Induction

DYT-PRKRA (dystonia 16 or DYT-PRKRA) is caused by mutations in the PRKRA gene that encodes PACT, the protein activator of interferon (IFN)-induced double-stranded (ds) RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR). PACT participates in several cellular pathways, of which its role as a PKR activator protein during integrated stress response (ISR) is the best characterized. Previously, we have established that the DYT-PRKRA mutations cause enhanced activation of PKR during ISR to sensitize DYT-PRKRA cells to apoptosis. In this study, we evaluate if the most prevalent substitution mutation reported in DYT-PRKRA patients alters PACT’s functional role in induction of type I IFNs via the retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) signaling. Our results indicate that the P222L mutation augments PACT’s ability to induce IFN β in response to dsRNA and the basal expression of IFN β and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) is higher in DYT-PRKRA patient cells compared to cells from the unaffected controls. Additionally, IFN β and ISGs are also induced at higher levels in DYT-PRKRA cells in response to dsRNA. These results offer a new avenue for investigations directed towards understanding the underlying molecular pathomechanisms in DYT-PRKRA.

Inhibiting the aberrant PACT-p53 axis activation ameliorates spinal cord ischaemia-reperfusion injury in rats

Spinal cord ischaemia-reperfusion injury (SCII) induces multiple molecular and cellular changes, resulting in dyskinesia. Recently, it is reported that the p53 network plays a vital role in SCII. However, the roles of the PACT/PRKRA (interferon-inducible double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase activator A)-p53 axis in SCII are still unclear. The aim of this study was to elucidate the roles of the PACT-p53 axis in SCII. A Sprague-Dawley rat model of SCII was established by subjecting rats to a 14-min occlusion of the aortic arch. The Tarlov criteria, Western blotting, double immunofluorescence staining, haematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining, and transferase dUTP nick end labelling (TUNEL) assay were performed after SCII. Here, spinal cord ischaemia-reperfusion (SCI) caused hindlimb motor functional deficits as assessed by the Tarlov criteria. The protein expression of PACT was substantially upregulated at 48 h after SCII. Increased PACT fluorescence was mainly localized to neurons. Si-PACT pretreatment improved hindlimb motor function, ameliorated histological changes, and attenuated cell apoptosis after SCII. Si-PACT pretreatment reduced the protein expression of PACT, p53, Caspase-8 and IL-1β and the number of double-labelled PACT and p53. Taken together, inhibiting the aberrant PACT-p53 axis activation by si-PACT pretreatment ameliorates SCI-induced neuroapoptosis and neuroinflammation in rats. Silencing PACT expression is promising new therapeutic strategy for SCII.

Autophagy and apoptosis cascade: which is more prominent in neuronal death?

Autophagy and apoptosis are two crucial self-destructive processes that maintain cellular homeostasis, which are characterized by their morphology and regulated through signal transduction mechanisms. These pathways determine the fate of cellular organelle and protein involved in human health and disease such as neurodegeneration, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Cell death pathways share common molecular mechanisms, such as mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, calcium ion concentration, reactive oxygen species, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Some key signaling molecules such as p53 and VEGF mediated angiogenic pathway exhibit cellular and molecular responses resulting in the triggering of apoptotic and autophagic pathways. Herein, based on previous studies, we describe the intricate relation between cell death pathways through their common genes and the role of various stress-causing agents. Further, extensive research on autophagy and apoptotic machinery excavates the implementation of selective biomarkers, for instance, mTOR, Bcl-2, BH3 family members, caspases, AMPK, PI3K/Akt/GSK3β, and p38/JNK/MAPK, in the pathogenesis and progression of neurodegenerative diseases. This molecular phenomenon will lead to the discovery of possible therapeutic biomolecules as a pharmacological intervention that are involved in the modulation of apoptosis and autophagy pathways. Moreover, we describe the potential role of micro-RNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and biomolecules as therapeutic agents that regulate cell death machinery to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Mounting evidence demonstrated that under stress conditions, such as calcium efflux, endoplasmic reticulum stress, the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and oxidative stress intermediate molecules, namely p53 and VEGF, activate and cause cell death. Further, activation of p53 and VEGF cause alteration in gene expression and dysregulated signaling pathways through the involvement of signaling molecules, namely mTOR, Bcl-2, BH3, AMPK, MAPK, JNK, and PI3K/Akt, and caspases. Alteration in gene expression and signaling cascades cause neurotoxicity and misfolded protein aggregates, which are characteristics features of neurodegenerative diseases. Excessive neurotoxicity and misfolded protein aggregates lead to neuronal cell death by activating death pathways like autophagy and apoptosis. However, autophagy has a dual role in the apoptosis pathways, i.e., activation and inhibition of the apoptosis signaling. Further, micro-RNAs and LncRNAs act as pharmacological regulators of autophagy and apoptosis cascade, whereas, natural compounds and chemical compounds act as pharmacological inhibitors that rescue neuronal cell death through inhibition of apoptosis and autophagic cell death.

A tale of two proteins: PACT and PKR and their roles in inflammation

Inflammation is a pathological hallmark associated with bacterial and viral infections, autoimmune diseases, genetic disorders, obesity and diabetes, as well as environmental stresses including physical and chemical trauma. Among numerous proteins regulating proinflammatory signaling, very few such as Protein kinase R (PKR), have been shown to play an all-pervading role in inflammation induced by varied stimuli. PKR was initially characterized as an interferon-inducible gene activated by viral double-stranded RNA with a role in protein translation inhibition. However, it has become increasingly clear that PKR is involved in multiple pathways that promote inflammation in response to stress activation, both dependent on and independent of its cellular protein activator of PKR (PACT). In this review, we discuss the signaling pathways that contribute to the initiation of inflammation, including Toll-like receptor, interferon, and RIG-I-like receptor signaling, as well as inflammasome activation. We go on to discuss the specific roles that PKR and PACT play in such proinflammatory signaling, as well as in metabolic syndrome- and environmental stress-induced inflammation.

Opposing forces fight over the same ground to regulate interferon signaling

The current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has spurred new interest in interferon signaling in response to viral pathogens. Much of what we know about the signaling molecules and associated signal transduction induced during the host cellular response to viral pathogens has been gained from research conducted from the 1990's to the present day, but certain intricacies of the mechanisms involved, still remain unclear. In a recent study by Vaughn et al. the authors examine one of the main mechanisms regulating interferon induction following viral infection, the RIG-I/MAVS/IRF3 pathway, and find that similar to PKR both DICER interacting proteins, PACT and TRBP, regulate RIG-I signaling in an opposing manner. More specifically, the reported findings demonstrate, like others, that PACT stimulates RIG-I-mediated signaling in a manner independent of PACT dsRNA-binding ability or phosphorylation at sites known to be important for PACT-dependent PKR activation. In contrast, they show for the first time that TRBP inhibits RIG-I-mediated signaling. RIG-I inhibition by TRBP did not require phosphorylation of sites shown to be important for inhibiting PKR, nor did it involve PACT or PKR, but it did require the dsRNA-binding ability of TRBP. These findings open the door to a complex co-regulation of RIG-I, PKR, MDA5, miRNA processing, and interferon induction.

EIF2AK2 Missense Variants Associated with Early Onset Generalized Dystonia

Objective

The study was undertaken to identify a monogenic cause of early onset, generalized dystonia.

Methods

Methods consisted of genome‐wide linkage analysis, exome and Sanger sequencing, clinical neurological examination, brain magnetic resonance imaging, and protein expression studies in skin fibroblasts from patients.

Results

We identified a heterozygous variant, c.388G>A, p.Gly130Arg, in the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha kinase 2 (EIF2AK2) gene, segregating with early onset isolated generalized dystonia in 5 patients of a Taiwanese family. EIF2AK2 sequencing in 191 unrelated patients with unexplained dystonia yielded 2 unrelated Caucasian patients with an identical heterozygous c.388G>A, p.Gly130Arg variant, occurring de novo in one case, another patient carrying a different heterozygous variant, c.413G>C, p.Gly138Ala, and one last patient, born from consanguineous parents, carrying a third, homozygous variant c.95A>C, p.Asn32Thr. These 3 missense variants are absent from gnomAD, and are located in functional domains of the encoded protein. In 3 patients, additional neurological manifestations were present, including intellectual disability and spasticity. EIF2AK2 encodes a kinase (protein kinase R [PKR]) that phosphorylates eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha (eIF2α), which orchestrates the cellular stress response. Our expression studies showed abnormally enhanced activation of the cellular stress response, monitored by PKR‐mediated phosphorylation of eIF2α, in fibroblasts from patients with EIF2AK2 variants. Intriguingly, PKR can also be regulated by PRKRA (protein interferon‐inducible double‐stranded RNA‐dependent protein kinase activator A), the product of another gene causing monogenic dystonia.

Interpretation

We identified EIF2AK2 variants implicated in early onset generalized dystonia, which can be dominantly or recessively inherited, or occur de novo. Our findings provide direct evidence for a key role of a dysfunctional eIF2α pathway in the pathogenesis of dystonia. ANN NEUROL 2021;89:485–497

Dystonia 16 (DYT16) mutations in PACT cause dysregulated PKR activation and eIF2α signaling leading to a compromised stress response

Dystonia 16 (DYT16) is caused by mutations in PACT, the protein activator of interferon-induced double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR). PKR regulates the integrated stress response (ISR) via phosphorylation of the translation initiation factor eIF2α. This post-translational modification attenuates general protein synthesis while concomitantly triggering enhanced translation of a few specific transcripts leading either to recovery and homeostasis or cellular apoptosis depending on the intensity and duration of stress signals. PKR plays a regulatory role in determining the cellular response to viral infections, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and growth factor deprivation. In the absence of stress, both PACT and PKR are bound by their inhibitor transactivation RNA-binding protein (TRBP) thereby keeping PKR inactive. Under conditions of cellular stress these inhibitory interactions dissociate facilitating PACT-PACT interactions critical for PKR activation. While both PACT-TRBP and PKR-TRBP interactions are pro-survival, PACT-PACT and PACT-PKR interactions are pro-apoptotic. In this study we evaluate if five DYT16 substitution mutations alter PKR activation and ISR. Our results indicate that the mutant DYT16 proteins show stronger PACT-PACT interactions and enhanced PKR activation. In DYT16 patient derived lymphoblasts the enhanced PACT-PKR interactions and heightened PKR activation leads to a dysregulation of ISR and increased apoptosis. More importantly, this enhanced sensitivity to ER stress can be rescued by luteolin, which disrupts PACT-PKR interactions. Our results not only demonstrate the impact of DYT16 mutations on regulation of ISR and DYT16 etiology but indicate that therapeutic interventions could be possible after a further evaluation of such strategies.

Uncovering Tumour Heterogeneity through PKR and nc886 Analysis in Metastatic Colon Cancer Patients Treated with 5-FU-Based Chemotherapy

Colorectal cancer treatment has advanced over the past decade. The drug 5-fluorouracil is still used with a wide percentage of patients who do not respond. Therefore, a challenge is the identification of predictive biomarkers. The protein kinase R (PKR also called EIF2AK2) and its regulator, the non-coding pre-mir-nc886, have multiple effects on cells in response to numerous types of stress, including chemotherapy. In this work, we performed an ambispective study with 197 metastatic colon cancer patients with unresectable metastases to determine the relative expression levels of both nc886 and PKR by qPCR, as well as the location of PKR by immunohistochemistry in tumour samples and healthy tissues (plasma and colon epithelium). As primary end point, the expression levels were related to the objective response to first-line chemotherapy following the response evaluation criteria in solid tumours (RECIST) and, as the second end point, with survival at 18 and 36 months. Hierarchical agglomerative clustering was performed to accommodate the heterogeneity and complexity of oncological patients’ data. High expression levels of nc886 were related to the response to treatment and allowed to identify clusters of patients. Although the PKR mRNA expression was not associated with chemotherapy response, the absence of PKR location in the nucleolus was correlated with first-line chemotherapy response. Moreover, a relationship between survival and the expression of both PKR and nc886 in healthy tissues was found. Therefore, this work evaluated the best way to analyse the potential biomarkers PKR and nc886 in order to establish clusters of patients depending on the cancer outcomes using algorithms for complex and heterogeneous data.