Molecular cloning of a putative membrane form guanylyl cyclase from the crayfish Procambarus clarkii

The Crustacean Hyperglycemic Hormone Superfamily: Progress Made in the Past Decade

Early studies recognizing the importance of the decapod eyestalk in the endocrine regulation of crustacean physiology-molting, metabolism, reproduction, osmotic balance, etc.-helped found the field of crustacean endocrinology. Characterization of putative factors in the eyestalk using distinct functional bioassays ultimately led to the discovery of a group of structurally related and functionally diverse neuropeptides, crustacean hyperglycemic hormone (CHH), molt-inhibiting hormone (MIH), gonad-inhibiting hormone (GIH) or vitellogenesis-inhibiting hormone (VIH), and mandibular organ-inhibiting hormone (MOIH). These peptides, along with the first insect member (ion transport peptide, ITP), constitute the original arthropod members of the crustacean hyperglycemic hormone (CHH) superfamily. The presence of genes encoding the CHH-superfamily peptides across representative ecdysozoan taxa has been established. The objective of this review is to, aside from providing a general framework, highlight the progress made during the past decade or so. The progress includes the widespread identification of the CHH-superfamily peptides, in particular in non-crustaceans, which has reshaped the phylogenetic profile of the superfamily. Novel functions have been attributed to some of the newly identified members, providing exceptional opportunities for understanding the structure-function relationships of these peptides. Functional studies are challenging, especially for the peptides of crustacean and insect species, where they are widely expressed in various tissues and usually pleiotropic. Progress has been made in deciphering the roles of CHH, ITP, and their alternatively spliced counterparts (CHH-L, ITP-L) in the regulation of metabolism and ionic/osmotic hemostasis under (eco)physiological, developmental, or pathological contexts, and of MIH in the stimulation of ovarian maturation, which implicates it as a regulator for coordinating growth (molt) and reproduction. In addition, experimental elucidation of the steric structure and structure-function relationships have given better understanding of the structural basis of the functional diversification and overlapping among these peptides. Finally, an important finding was the first-ever identification of the receptors for this superfamily of peptides, specifically the receptors for ITPs of the silkworm, which will surely give great impetus to the functional study of these peptides for years to come. Studies regarding recent progress are presented and synthesized, and prospective developments remarked upon.

Identification and characterization of receptors for ion transport peptide (ITP) and ITP-like (ITPL) in the silkworm Bombyx mori

Ion transport peptide (ITP) and its alternatively spliced variant, ITP-like (ITPL), are insect peptides that belong to the crustacean hyperglycemic hormone family. These peptides modulate the homeostatic mechanisms for regulating energy metabolism, molting, and reproduction and are specifically conserved in ecdysozoans. Many of the details of the molecular mechanisms by which crustacean hyperglycemic hormone family peptides exert pleiotropy remain to be elucidated, including characterization of their receptors. Here we identified three Bombyx mori orphan neuropeptide G protein-coupled receptors (BNGRs), BNGR-A2, -A24, and -A34, as receptors for ITP and ITPL (collectively referred to as ITPs). BNGR-A2 and -A34 and BNGR-A24 respond to recombinant ITPs, respectively, with EC50 values of 1.1-2.6 × 10(-8) M, when expressed in a heterologous expression system. These three candidate BNGRs are expressed at larval B. mori tissues targeted by ITPs, with cGMP elevation observed after exposure to recombinant ITPs. ITPs also increased the cGMP level in B. mori ovary-derived BmN cells via membrane-bound and soluble guanylyl cyclases. The simultaneous knockdown of bngr-A2 and -A34 significantly decreased the response of BmN cells to ITP, whereas knockdown of bngr-A24 led to decreased responses to ITPL. Conversely, transient expression of bngr-A24 potentiated the response of BmN cells to ITPL. An in vitro binding assay showed direct interaction between ITPs and heterologously expressed BNGRs in a ligand-receptor-specific manner. Taken together, these data demonstrate that BNGR-A2 and -A34 are ITP receptors and that BNGR-A24 is an ITPL receptor in B. mori.

Signal transduction for Schistocerca gregaria ion transport peptide is mediated via both cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP

The second messengers involved in the signal transduction for Schistocerca gregaria, ion transport peptide (Schgr-ITP) that regulates ion and fluid transport across the ileum of the desert locust S. gregaria, were measured using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Synthetic Schgr-ITP elevates intracellular levels of both cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP, measured over a 15 min period in the presence of 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine, in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, crude corpora cardiaca (CC) extracts elevate intracellular cyclic AMP levels 2-fold greater than Schgr-ITP, suggesting that factors present in the CC, other than Schgr-ITP, also act via this second messenger. These results suggest that the interaction of Schgr-ITP with two separate receptors, most likely a G-protein coupled receptor and a membrane bound guanylate cyclase, elevates intracellular levels of cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP to regulate ion and fluid transport across the locust ileum. Cyclic AMP stimulates Cl(-), K(+) and Na(+) reabsorption, whereas secretion of H(+) into the lumen of the ileum is most likely mediated via cyclic GMP. Cyclic GMP also stimulates Cl(-) uptake in a similar manner to cyclic AMP. The measurement of tissue (central nervous system) levels of Schgr-ITP using an indirect ELISA confirms that the peptide is only present in the locust brain and the CC. The amounts present are greatest in the CC, where the peptide is presumably stored for release into the hemolymph when locusts feed.

The CHH-superfamily of multifunctional peptide hormones controlling crustacean metabolism, osmoregulation, moulting, and reproduction

Apart from providing an up-to-date review of the literature, considerable emphasis was placed in this article on the historical development of the field of "crustacean eyestalk hormones". A role of the neurosecretory eyestalk structures of crustaceans in endocrine regulation was recognized about 80 years ago, but it took another half a century until the first peptide hormones were identified. Following the identification of crustacean hyperglycaemic hormone (CHH) and moult-inhibiting hormone (MIH), a large number of homologous peptides have been identified to this date. They comprise a family of multifunctional peptides which can be divided, according to sequences and precursor structure, into two subfamilies, type-I and -II. Recent results on peptide sequences, structure of genes and precursors are described here. The best studied biological activities include metabolic control, moulting, gonad maturation, ionic and osmotic regulation and methyl farnesoate synthesis in mandibular glands. Accordingly, the names CHH, MIH, and GIH/VIH (gonad/vitellogenesis-inhibiting hormone), MOIH (mandibular organ-inhibiting hormone) were coined. The identification of ITP (ion transport peptide) in insects showed, for the first time, that CHH-family peptides are not restricted to crustaceans, and data mining has recently inferred their occurrence in other ecdysozoan clades as well. The long-held tenet of exclusive association with the eyestalk X-organ-sinus gland tract has been challenged by the finding of several extra nervous system sites of expression of CHH-family peptides. Concerning mode of action and the question of target tissues, second messenger mechanisms are discussed, as well as binding sites and receptors. Future challenges are highlighted.

Molecular cloning of a putative crustacean hyperglycemic hormone (CHH) isoform from extra-eyestalk tissue of the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), and determination of temporal and spatial patterns of CHH gene expression

Crustacean hyperglycemic hormone (CHH) is a polypeptide neurohormone involved in regulation of multiple physiological processes. We report here the cloning from thoracic ganglia of the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) a cDNA (CsCHH-2) encoding a putative CHH isoform (CsCHH-2). CsCHH-2 is structurally similar to a putative preproCHH (CsCHH-1) previously cloned from eyestalk ganglia of C. sapidus. The two preprohormones possess an identical signal peptide and CHH precursor related peptide, but differ in the mature CHH polypeptide. An analysis by RT-PCR of the tissue distribution of CsCHH-1 and CsCHH-2 revealed the former is restricted to eyestalk neural ganglia, while the latter is widely distributed among tissues. The type of CHH transcript present in eyestalk and thoracic ganglia did not vary as a function of the molt cycle. An assessment of transcript abundance in tissues of intermolt crabs showed the abundance of the CsCHH-1 transcript in eyestalk ganglia far exceeds the abundance of the CsCHH-2 transcript in extra-eyestalk tissue. An assessment of transcript abundance during a molt cycle showed CsCHH-1 transcript abundance in eyestalk ganglia was low during intermolt, rose during premolt, reaching a peak in D(3), then fell prior to molting, and remained low during postmolt. By contrast, CsCHH-2 transcript abundance in thoracic ganglia was low during intermolt, rose sharply during D(2), then dropped in D(3) and remained low during postmolt. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that CsCHH-1 and CsCHH-2 differ with respect to physiological function.

Neuropeptide action in insects and crustaceans

Physiological processes are regulated by a diverse array of neuropeptides that coordinate organ systems. The neuropeptides, many of which act through G protein-coupled receptors, affect the levels of cyclic nucleotides (cAMP and cGMP) and Ca(2+) in target tissues. In this perspective, their roles in molting, osmoregulation, metabolite utilization, and cardiovascular function are highlighted. In decapod crustaceans, inhibitory neuropeptides (molt-inhibiting hormone and crustacean hyperglycemic hormone) suppress the molting gland through cAMP- and cGMP-mediated signaling. In insects, the complex movements during ecdysis are controlled by ecdysis-triggering hormone and a cascade of downstream neuropeptides. Adipokinetic/hypertrehalosemic/hyperprolinemic hormones mobilize energy stores in response to increased locomotory activity. Crustacean cardioacceleratory (cardioactive) peptide, proctolin, and FMRFamide-related peptides act on the heart, accessory pulsatile organs, and excurrent ostia to control hemolymph distribution to tissues. The osmoregulatory challenge of blood gorging in Rhodnius prolixus requires the coordinated release of serotonin and diuretic and antidiuretic hormones acting on the midgut and Malpighian tubules. These studies illustrate how multiple neuropeptides allow for flexibility in response to physiological challenges.

Identification and characterization of Alix/AIP1 interacting proteins from the black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon

Apoptosis is proposed to be a major cause of death in shrimp viral infections. From our previous study, an apoptosis-related gene, Pm-Alix, was identified from the black tiger shrimp. Its expression was high in defence-related tissues including haemocytes and the lymphoid organ. To clarify its possible role in shrimp, we used Pm-Alix as bait in a yeast two-hybrid analysis to search for Alix interacting proteins in shrimp. Two cDNA sequences discovered had homology to a predicted ubiquitin C of the purple sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, and to a guanylyl cyclase of the red swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii. In vitro pull-down assays confirmed positive interaction between Pm-Alix and both proteins. Tissue distribution analysis revealed that Pm-Alix and the two binding partners were widely expressed in various tissues but more highly expressed in haemocytes. However, no significant positive or negative correlation was found in the expression of these genes as shrimp approached morbidity and death after challenge with white spot syndrome virus. Thus, the results suggested that Alix and its interacting partners did not play a direct role related to shrimp death.

Effects of elevated ecdysteroid on tissue expression of three guanylyl cyclases in the tropical land crab Gecarcinus lateralis: possible roles of neuropeptide signaling in the molting gland

Two eyestalk (ES) neuropeptides, molt-inhibiting hormone (MIH) and crustacean hyperglycemic hormone (CHH), increase intracellular cGMP levels in target tissues. Both MIH and CHH inhibit ecdysteroid secretion by the molting gland or Y-organ (YO), but apparently through different guanylyl cyclase(GC)-dependent pathways. MIH signaling may be mediated by nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and NO-sensitive GC. CHH binds to a membrane receptor GC. As molting affects neuropeptide signaling, the effects of ecdysteroid on the expression of the land crab Gecarcinus lateralis β subunit of a NO-sensitive GC (Gl-GC-Iβ), a membrane receptor GC (Gl-GC-II) and a NO-insensitive soluble GC (Gl-GC-III) were determined. Gl-GC-Iβ isoforms differing in the absence or presence of an N-terminal 32-amino acid sequence and Gl-GC-III were expressed at higher mRNA levels in ES ganglia, gill,hepatopancreas, ovary and testis, and at lower levels in YO, heart and skeletal muscle. Three Gl-GC-II isoforms, which vary in the length of insertions (+18, +9 and +0 amino acids) within the N-terminal ligand-binding domain, differed in tissue distribution. Gl-GC-II(+18) was expressed highly in striated muscle (skeletal and cardiac muscles); Gl-GC-II(+9) was expressed in all tissues examined (ES ganglia, YO, gill, hepatopancreas, striated muscles and gonads); and Gl-GC-II(+0) was expressed in most tissues and was the dominant isoform in ES and thoracic ganglia. ES ablation, which increased hemolymph ecdysteroid, increased Gl-GC-II(+18) mRNA level in claw muscle. Using real-time RT-PCR, ES ablation increased Gl-GC-Iβ, Gl-GC-III and ecdysone receptor mRNA levels in the YOs ∼ten-, ∼four- and∼twofold, respectively, whereas Gl-GC-II mRNA level was unchanged. A single injection of 20-hydroxyecdysone into intact animals transiently lowered Gl-GC-Iβ in hepatopancreas, testis and skeletal muscle, and certain Gl-GC-II isoforms in some of the tissues. These data suggest that YO and other tissues can modulate responses to neuropeptides by altering GC expression.

Binding sites of crustacean hyperglycemic hormone and its second messengers on gills and hindgut of the green shore crab, Carcinus maenas: a possible osmoregulatory role

To determine the possible involvement of crustacean hyperglycemic hormone (CHH) in osmoregulation in crustaceans, ligand binding and second messenger assays were performed on gills and hindgut preparations of the green shore crab Carcinus maenas, whilst midgut gland, previously known as one of the target tissues of CHH served as a control tissue. Classical receptor binding analyses using [(125)I]CHH by saturation and displacement experiments from membrane preparations from gills, hindgut, and midgut glands demonstrated that CHH binding characteristics involved one site, highly specific, saturable, and displaceable kinetics: (gills: K(D) 5.87 +/- 2.05 x 10(-10) and B(MAX) 6.50 +/- 1.15 x 10(-10), hindgut: K(D) 3.54 +/- 1.49 x 10(-10) and B(MAX) 2.31 +/- 0.44 x 10(-10), and midgut gland: K(D) 7.28 +/- 0.9 x 10(-10) and B(MAX) 3.28 +/- 0.25 x 10(-10)) all expressed as M/mg protein. No differences, in terms of displacement were observed between the two CHH isoforms (N-terminally blocked pGlu and unblocked Gln) variants. CHH binding sites appeared to be coupled to a second messenger system involving cGMP in all the tissues examined. Exposure of crabs to dilute seawater increased levels of cGMP, glucose in gills and circulating CHH levels. Other crustacean neuropeptides including crustacean cardioactive peptide, molt inhibiting hormone, L-enkephalin, FMRF-amide, proctolin, and crustacean hyperglycemic hormone precursor-related peptide were tested with regard to possible osmoregulatory roles with reference to changes in second messenger (cAMP and cGMP) concentrations in gill, hindgut, and midgut tissues in vitro, following application at 2 x 10(-8) M but all were found to be inactive. Thus, it seems likely that CHH is a pertinent neurohormone involved in osmoregulation, thus expanding its many functions as a pleiotropic hormone in crustaceans.

Molecular cloning of a putative receptor guanylyl cyclase from Y-organs of the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus

Crustacean molt-inhibiting hormone (MIH), a polypeptide produced by neurosecretory cells in eyestalk ganglia, suppresses the synthesis of ecdysteroid molting hormones by paired Y-organs. Data from several sources indicate the effects of MIH are mediated, at least in part, by a cGMP second messenger. Based on these and related findings, our working hypothesis is that the MIH receptor is a receptor guanylyl cyclase (rGC). In studies reported here, we used a PCR-based cloning strategy (RT-PCR followed by 5'- and 3'-RACE) to clone from blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) Y-organs a cDNA (CsGC-YO1) encoding a putative rGC. DNA sequence analysis revealed a 3807 base pair open reading frame encoding a 56 residue signal peptide and a 1213 residue rGC. Analysis of the deduced amino acid sequence showed that CsGC-YO1 contains the signature domains characteristic of rGCs, including an extracellular ligand-binding domain, a single transmembrane domain, a kinase-like domain, a dimerization domain, and a cyclase catalytic domain. CsGC-YO1 is most closely related to an rGC from the crayfish, Procambarus claikii (PcGC-M2, 58.4% identity), and rGCs from three insect species (33.1-37.5% identity). Conserved cysteine residues are similarly distributed in the extracellular domains of CsGC-YO1, PcGC-M2, and the three insect rGCs. RT-PCR revealed the CsGC-YO1 transcript is expressed in Y-organs and several other tissues. While other interpretations of the data are possible, our working hypothesis is that the cloned cDNA encodes an MIH receptor.

Diverse Forms of Guanylyl Cyclases in Medaka Fish – Their Genomic Structure and Phylogenetic Relationships to those in Vertebrates and Invertebrates

Fish species such as medaka fish, fugu, and zebrafish contain more guanylyl cyclases (GCs) than do mammals. These GCs can be divided into two types: soluble GCs and membrane GCs. The latter are further divided into four subfamilies: (i) natriuretic peptide receptors, (ii) STa/guanylin receptors, (iii) sensory-organ-specific membrane GCs, and (iv) orphan receptors. Phylogenetic analyses of medaka fish GCs, along with those of fugu and zebrafish, suggest that medaka fish is a much closer relative to fugu than to zebrafish. Analyses of nucleotide data available on a web site (http://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/) of GCs from a range of organisms from bacteria to vertebrates suggest that gene duplication, and possibly chromosomal duplication, play important roles in the divergence of GCs. In particular, the membrane GC genes were generated by chromosomal duplication before the divergence of tetrapods and teleosts.

Insect Neuropeptide and Peptide Hormone Receptors: Current Knowledge and Future Directions

Peptides form a very versatile class of extracellular messenger molecules that function as chemical communication signals between the cells of an organism. Molecular diversity is created at different levels of the peptide synthesis scheme. Peptide messengers exert their biological functions via specific signal-transducing membrane receptors. The evolutionary origin of several peptide precursor and receptor gene families precedes the divergence of the important animal Phyla. In this chapter, current knowledge is reviewed with respect to the analysis of peptide receptors from insects, incorporating many recent data that result from the sequencing of different insect genomes. Therefore, detailed information is provided on six different peptide receptor families belonging to two distinct receptor categories (i.e., the heptahelical and the single transmembrane receptors). In addition, the remaining problems, the emerging concepts, and the future prospects in this area of research are discussed.