Regionalization of axial skeleton in the lungfishNeoceratodus forsteri (Dipnoi)

Elevated Water CO2 Can Prevent Dietary-Induced Osteomalacia in Post-Smolt Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar, L.)

Expansion of land-based systems in fish farms elevate the content of metabolic carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the water. High CO₂ is suggested to increase the bone mineral content in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar, L.). Conversely, low dietary phosphorus (P) halts bone mineralization. This study examines if high CO₂ can counteract reduced bone mineralization imposed by low dietary P intake. Atlantic salmon post-seawater transfer (initial weight 207.03 g) were fed diets containing 6.3 g/kg (0.5P), 9.0 g/kg (1P), or 26.8 g/kg (3P) total P for 13 weeks. Atlantic salmon from all dietary P groups were reared in seawater which was not injected with CO₂ and contained a regular CO₂ level (5 mg/L) or in seawater with injected CO₂ thus raising the level to 20 mg/L. Atlantic salmon were analyzed for blood chemistry, bone mineral content, vertebral centra deformities, mechanical properties, bone matrix alterations, expression of bone mineralization, and P metabolism-related genes. High CO₂ and high P reduced Atlantic salmon growth and feed intake. High CO₂ increased bone mineralization when dietary P was low. Atlantic salmon fed with a low P diet downregulated the fgf23 expression in bone cells indicating an increased renal phosphate reabsorption. The current results suggest that reduced dietary P could be sufficient to maintain bone mineralization under conditions of elevated CO₂. This opens up a possibility for lowering the dietary P content under certain farming conditions.

Phenotypic regionalization of the vertebral column in the thorny skate Amblyraja radiata: Stability and variation

Regionalization of the vertebral column occurred early during vertebrate evolution and has been extensively investigated in mammals. However, less data are available on vertebral regions of crown gnathostomes. This is particularly true for batoids (skates, sawfishes, guitarfishes, and rays) whose vertebral column has long been considered to be composed of the same two regions as in teleost fishes despite the presence of a synarcual. However, the numerous vertebral units in chondrichthyans may display a more complex regionalization pattern than previously assumed and the intraspecific variation of such pattern deserves a thorough investigation. In this study, we use micro-computed tomography (µCT) scans of vertebral columns of a growth series of thorny skates Amblyraja radiata to provide the first fine-scale morphological description of vertebral units in a batoids species. We further investigate axial regionalization using a replicable clustering analysis on presence/absence of vertebral elements to decipher the regionalization of the vertebral column of A. radiata. We identify four vertebral regions in this species. The two anteriormost regions, named synarcual and thoracic, may undergo strong developmental or functional constraints because they display stable patterns of shapes and numbers of vertebral units across all growth stages. The third region, named hemal transitional, is characterized by high inter-individual morphological variation and displays a transition between the monospondylous (one centrum per somite) to diplospondylous (two centra per somite) conditions. The posteriormost region, named caudal, is subdivided into three sub-regions with shapes changing gradually along the anteroposterior axis. These regionalized patterns are discussed in light of ecological habits of skates.

What Fish Can Teach Us about the Feeding Functions of Postcranial Muscles and Joints

Studies of vertebrate feeding have predominantly focused on the bones and muscles of the head, not the body. Yet, postcranial musculoskeletal structures like the spine and pectoral girdle are anatomically linked to the head, and may also have mechanical connections through which they can contribute to feeding. The feeding roles of postcranial structures have been best studied in ray-finned fishes, where the body muscles, vertebral column, and pectoral girdle attach directly to the head and help expand the mouth during suction feeding. Therefore, I use the anatomy and motion of the head–body interface in these fishes to develop a mechanical framework for studying postcranial functions during feeding. In fish the head and body are linked by the vertebral column, the pectoral girdle, and the body muscles that actuate these skeletal systems. The morphology of the joints and muscles of the cranio-vertebral and hyo-pectoral interfaces may determine the mobility of the head relative to the body, and ultimately the role of these interfaces during feeding. The postcranial interfaces can function as anchors during feeding: the body muscles and joints minimize motion between the head and body to stabilize the head or transmit forces from the body. Alternatively, the postcranial interfaces can be motors: body muscles actuate motion between the head and body to generate power for feeding motions. The motor function is likely important for many suction-feeding fishes, while the anchor function may be key for bite- or ram-feeding fishes. This framework can be used to examine the role of the postcranial interface in other vertebrate groups, and how that role changes (or not) with morphology and feeding behaviors. Such studies can expand our understanding of muscle function, as well as the evolution of vertebrate feeding behaviors across major transitions such as the invasion of land and the emergence of jaws.

Vertebral column regionalisation in Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha

Teleost vertebral centra are often similar in size and shape, but vertebral-associated elements, i.e. neural arches, haemal arches and ribs, show regional differences. Here we examine how the presence, absence and specific anatomical and histological characters of vertebral centra-associated elements can be used to define vertebral column regions in juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). To investigate if the presence of regions within the vertebral column is independent of temperature, animals raised at 8 and 12 °C were studied at 1400 and 1530 degreedays, in the freshwater phase of the life cycle. Anatomy and composition of the skeletal tissues of the vertebral column were analysed using Alizarin red S whole-mount staining and histological sections. Six regions, termed I-VI, are recognised in the vertebral column of specimens of both temperature groups. Postcranial vertebrae (region I) carry neural arches and parapophyses but lack ribs. Abdominal vertebrae (region II) carry neural arches and ribs that articulate with parapophyses. Elastic- and fibrohyaline cartilage and Sharpey's fibres connect the bone of the parapophyses to the bone of the ribs. In the transitional region (III) vertebrae carry neural arches and parapophyses change stepwise into haemal arches. Ribs decrease in size, anterior to posterior. Vestigial ribs remain attached to the haemal arches with Sharpey's fibres. Caudal vertebrae (region IV) carry neural and haemal arches and spines. Basidorsals and basiventrals are small and surrounded by cancellous bone. Preural vertebrae (region V) carry neural and haemal arches with modified neural and haemal spines to support the caudal fin. Ural vertebrae (region VI) carry hypurals and epurals that represent modified haemal and neural arches and spines, respectively. The postcranial and transitional vertebrae and their respective characters are usually recognised, but should be considered as regions within the vertebral column of teleosts because of their distinctive morphological characters. While the number of vertebrae within each region can vary, each of the six regions is recognised in specimens of both temperature groups. This refined identification of regionalisation in the vertebral column of Chinook salmon can help to address evolutionary developmental and functional questions, and to support applied research into this farmed species.

Developmental dynamics of occipital and cervical somites

Development of somites leading to somite compartments, sclerotome, dermomyotome and myotome, has been intensely investigated. Most knowledge on somite development, including the commonly used somite maturation stages, is based on data from somites at thoracic and lumbar levels. Potential regional differences in somite maturation dynamics have been indicated by a number of studies, but have not yet been comprehensively examined. Here, we present an overview on the developmental dynamics of somites at occipital and cervical levels in the chicken embryo. We show that in these regions, the onset of sclerotomal and myotomal compartment formation is later than at thoracolumbar levels, and is initiated simultaneously in multiple somites, which is in contrast to the serial cranial- to- caudal progression of somite maturation in the trunk. Our data suggest a variant spatiotemporal regulation of somite development in occipitocervical somites.

Tetrapod-like axial regionalization in an early ray-finned fish

Tetrapods possess up to five morphologically distinct vertebral series: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal. The evolution of axial regionalization has been linked to derived Hox expression patterns during development and the demands of weight-bearing and walking on land. These evolutionary and functional explanations are supported by an absence of similar traits in fishes, living and extinct. Here, I show that, Tarrasius problematicus, a marine ray-finned fish from the Mississippian (Early Carboniferous; 359-318 Ma) of Scotland, is the first non-tetrapod known to possess tetrapod-like axial regionalization. Tarrasius exhibits five vertebral regions, including a seven-vertebrae 'cervical' series and a reinforced 'sacrum' over the pelvic area. Most vertebrae possess processes for intervertebral contact similar to tetrapod zygapophyses. The fully aquatic Tarrasius evolved these morphologies alongside other traits convergent with early tetrapods, including a naked trunk, and a single median continuous fin. Regional modifications in Tarrasius probably facilitated pelagic swimming, rather than a terrestrial lifestyle or walking gait, presenting an alternative scenario for the evolution of such traits in tetrapods. Axial regionalization in Tarrasius could indicate tetrapod-like Hox expression patterns, possibly representing the primitive state for jawed vertebrates. Alternately, it could signal a weaker relationship, or even a complete disconnect, between Hox expression domains and vertebrate axial plans.

No bones about it: an enigmatic Devonian fossil reveals a new skeletal framework--a potential role of loss of gene regulation

Palaeospondylus gunni (Devonian, Scotland) is an enigmatic vertebrate, assigned to various jawless and jawed groups since its original description. New sections through the whole body allow description of a novel skeletal tissue for Palaeospondylus, comprising the entire skeleton. This tissue is mineralized cartilage and is characterized by large cell spaces embedded in minimal matrix. Bone is completely absent. Calcium phosphate mineralization has a differential topography of deposition within the cartilage that reflects a biogenic origin, despite subsequent diagenetic modification. This combination of hypertrophied cell spaces surrounded by regionalized mineralized matrix differs from all other cartilage in fossil and extant vertebrates. However, it compares most closely to gnathostome endochondral bone in early developmental stages. For example, Palaeospondylus skeletal histology differs from the Devonian agnathan Euphanerops and extant lamprey cartilage. Comparison with mineralized cartilage of armored fossil agnathans and placoderms shows the histology is not comparable to globular calcified cartilage. It also differs from that in extant chondrichthyan mineralized tesserae, which is restricted to a subperichondral zone. Amongst this diversity of calcified cartilage types we discuss various interpretations, including one that implicates tissue either in developmental stasis, before osteoblasts can deposit bone, or at a phylogenetic stage when this step has not evolved. These very different hypotheses highlight difficulties in interpreting fossil ontogenies when phylogenetic relationships are uncertain. Nevertheless, we propose that the composition of the Palaeospondylus skeleton represents a fossilized ontogenetic stage of endochondral bone, a type of bone characteristic of osteichthyan vertebrates.

IsPalaeospondylus gunni a fossil larval lungfish? Insights fromNeoceratodus forsteri development

The enigmatic Devonian fossil Palaeospondylus gunni was identified as a larval form, metamorphosing into the lungfish Dipterus valenciennesi. Morphological features used to identify P. gunni as a larval lungfish include enlarged cranial ribs, rudimentary limb girdles, and absence of teeth. However, this combination of features does not characterize the extant lungfish Neoceratodus forsteri, even at very young stages, nor early stages of Devonian and younger fossil lungfish. Absence of teeth is problematic because early ontogenetic stages of fossil and living lungfish possess full dentitions including marginal teeth. Also problematic are cranial ribs as a defining character of lungfish, as these also occur in certain actinopterygians. It is argued that Neoceratodus is an obligate neotene (reproductively mature larva), with the implication that metamorphosis was a feature of the ontogeny of early lungfish. Pedomorphic characters have been recognized in Neoceratodus and other post-Devonian lungfish, including large cells and correspondingly large genome size; these latter characters correlate with neoteny in salamanders. Small cells preserved in fossil bone suggest that Devonian lungfish had a smaller genome than post-Devonian lungfish, implying that they were not neotenic. As fossil lungfish cell sizes (and genomes) increased in the late Paleozoic, the diversity of lungfish morphologies decreased, so that taxa like Sagenodus and Conchopoma show morphological similarity to Neoceratodus, marking a point in phylogeny at which metamorphosis was potentially lost. Since ancestral larval characters are retained in neotenic adults, we predict that Devonian larvae should resemble these post-Devonian taxa, a prediction which Palaeospondylus does not fulfill.