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McGee K, d'Elbée M, Dekova R, Sande LA, Dube L, Masuku S, Dlamini M, Mangenah C, Mwenge L, Johnson C, Hatzold K, Neuman M, Meyer-Rath G, Terris-Prestholt F. Costs of distributing HIV self-testing kits in Eswatini through community and workplace models. BMC Infect Dis 2024; 22:976. [PMID: 38424538 PMCID: PMC10902928 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-023-08694-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study evaluates the implementation and running costs of an HIV self-testing (HIVST) distribution program in Eswatini. HIVST kits were delivered through community-based and workplace models using primary and secondary distribution. Primary clients could self-test onsite or offsite. This study presents total running economic costs of kit distribution per model between April 2019 and March 2020, and estimates average cost per HIVST kit distributed, per client self-tested, per client self-tested reactive, per client confirmed positive, and per client initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART). METHODS Distribution data and follow-up phone interviews were analysed to estimate implementation outcomes. Results were presented for each step of the care cascade using best-case and worst-case scenarios. A top-down incremental cost-analysis was conducted from the provider perspective using project expenditures. Sensitivity and scenario analyses explored effects of economic and epidemiological parameters on average costs. RESULTS Nineteen thousand one hundred fifty-five HIVST kits were distributed to 13,031 individuals over a 12-month period, averaging 1.5 kits per recipient. 83% and 17% of kits were distributed via the community and workplace models, respectively. Clients reached via the workplace model were less likely to opt for onsite testing than clients in the community model (8% vs 29%). 6% of onsite workplace testers tested reactive compared to 2% of onsite community testers. Best-case scenario estimated 17,458 (91%) clients self-tested, 633 (4%) received reactive-test results, 606 (96%) linked to confirmatory testing, and 505 (83%) initiated ART. Personnel and HIVST kits represented 60% and 32% of total costs, respectively. Average costs were: per kit distributed US$17.23, per client tested US$18.91, per client with a reactive test US$521.54, per client confirmed positive US$550.83, and per client initiating ART US$708.60. Lower rates for testing, reactivity, and linkage to care in the worst-case scenario resulted in higher average costs along the treatment cascade. CONCLUSION This study fills a significant evidence gap regarding costs of HIVST provision along the client care cascade in Eswatini. Workplace and community-based distribution of HIVST accompanied with effective linkage to care strategies can support countries to reach cascade objectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen McGee
- Faculty of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
| | - Marc d'Elbée
- Faculty of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | | | - Linda A Sande
- Malawi Liverpool Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Blantyre, Malawi
| | | | - Sanele Masuku
- Population Services International, Mbabane, Eswatini
| | | | - Collin Mangenah
- Centre for Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Research, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | | | - Cheryl Johnson
- World Health Organisation, Global HIV, Hepatitis and STI Programmes, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Karin Hatzold
- Population Services International, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Melissa Neuman
- Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Gesine Meyer-Rath
- Center for Global Heath and Development, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, USA
- Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Fern Terris-Prestholt
- Faculty of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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Guo YF, Yan SD, Xie JW, Wang M, Lin YQ, Lin LR. Using signal-to-cutoff ratios of HIV screening assay to predict HIV infection. BMC Infect Dis 2023; 23:874. [PMID: 38093214 PMCID: PMC10717622 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-023-08891-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The sensitivity of HIV screening assays often leads to a high rate of false-positive results, requiring retests and confirmatory tests. This study aimed to analyze the capability of signal-to-cutoff (S/CO) ratios of HIV screening assay to predict HIV infection. METHODS A retrospective study on the HIV screening-positive population was performed at Zhongshan Hospital, Xiamen University, the correlation between HIV screening assay S/CO ratios and HIV infection was assessed, and plotted Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves were generated to establish the optimal cutoff value for predicting HIV infection. RESULTS Out of 396,679 patients, 836 were confirmed to be HIV-infected, with an HIV prevalence of 0.21%. The median S/CO ratios in HIV infection were significantly higher than that in non-HIV infection (296.9 vs. 2.41, P < 0.001). The rate of confirmed HIV infection was increased with higher S/CO ratios in the screening assay. The ROC curve based on the HIV screening assay S/CO ratio achieved a sensitivity of 93.78% and a specificity of 93.12% with an optimal cutoff value of 14.09. The area under the ROC curve was 0.9612. Further analysis of the ROC curve indicated that the S/CO ratio thresholds yielding positive predictive values of 99%, 99.5%, and 100% for HIV infection were 26.25, 285.7, and 354.5, respectively. CONCLUSION Using HIV screening assay S/CO ratio to predict HIV infection can largely reduce necessitating retests and confirmatory tests. Incorporating the S/CO ratio into HIV testing algorithms can have significant implications for medical and public health practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin-Feng Guo
- Center of Clinical Laboratory, School of Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- Institute of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Shui-Di Yan
- Center of Clinical Laboratory, School of Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- Institute of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Jia-Wen Xie
- Center of Clinical Laboratory, School of Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- Institute of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Mao Wang
- Center of Clinical Laboratory, School of Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- Institute of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Yi-Qiang Lin
- Center of Clinical Laboratory, School of Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.
- Institute of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.
| | - Li-Rong Lin
- Center of Clinical Laboratory, School of Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.
- Department of Basic Medical Science, Xiamen Medical College, Xiamen, China.
- Institute of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.
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Afari BA, Enos JY, Alangea DO, Addo-Lartey A, Manu A. Predictors of HIV testing among women experiencing intimate partner violence in the Central Region of Ghana. PLOS GLOBAL PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 2:e0000376. [PMID: 36962229 PMCID: PMC10021791 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0000376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
HIV testing, which is important for the control of the HIV pandemic, has been hampered by several factors including Intimate Partner Violence (IPV), resulting in low uptake. This study sought to determine the predictors of HIV testing among women experiencing IPV. Secondary analysis of data generated from a cross-sectional mixed-method unmatched cluster-randomized controlled trial designed to evaluate a multi-faceted community intervention to reduce the incidence of IPV in Ghana was done (N = 2000). Logistic regressions were performed to determine the predictors of HIV testing among women experiencing IPV, using the trial baseline data. The prevalence of HIV testing among women exposed to IPV in the study setting was 42.4%. Less than a third of the respondents (30.2%) had ever used condom and 96.6% had unemployed partners. Age, educational attainment, employment, residence and condom use were found to be significant predictors of HIV testing among women experiencing IPV. Women aged 25-39 years were more than twice as likely to test for HIV (AOR:2.41; 95%CI:1.45-4.02) than those above 45 years. Women with formal education (Junior-High-AOR:2.10; 95%CI:1.42-3.12; Senior-High-AOR:3.87; 95%CI:2.07-7.26); who had ever used condom (AOR:1.42; 95%CI:1.05-1.93); those reporting life satisfaction (AOR:1.44; 95%CI:1.08-1.92); and coastal residents (AOR:1.97; 95%CI:1.45-2.67) were more likely to test for HIV than those who did not and inland residents. However, employed women (AOR:0.66; 95%CI:0.45-0.96) were less likely to test for HIV than unemployed women. Less than half of the women exposed to IPV had tested for HIV. Socioeconomic disadvantages related to age, education, employment, residence and life satisfaction predicted HIV testing among women exposed to IPV. Considering the vulnerability of women experiencing IPV to HIV infection, strategies to improve uptake of HIV testing must tackle contextual socioeconomic factors that hinder access to services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Adwoa Afari
- Department of Population Family and Reproductive Health, School of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Juliana Yartey Enos
- Department of Epidemiology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Deda Ogum Alangea
- Department of Population Family and Reproductive Health, School of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Adolphina Addo-Lartey
- Department of Epidemiology and Disease Control, School of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Adom Manu
- Department of Population Family and Reproductive Health, School of Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
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Lin YQ, Gao YL, Wang M, Yan SD, Lin LR. Analysis of the characteristics of patients with false-positive HIV screening assay results. Int Immunopharmacol 2022; 105:108556. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.108556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2021] [Revised: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Neilan AM, Cohn J, Sacks E, Gandhi AR, Fassinou P, Walensky RP, Kouadio MN, Freedberg KA, Ciaranello AL. Evaluating Point-of-Care Nucleic Acid Tests in Adult Human Immunodeficiency Virus Diagnostic Strategies: A Côte d'Ivoire Modeling Analysis. Open Forum Infect Dis 2021; 8:ofab225. [PMID: 34189169 PMCID: PMC8231387 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofab225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The World Health Organization (WHO) human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) diagnostic strategy requires 6 rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs). Point-of-care nucleic acid tests (POC NATs) are costlier, less sensitive, but more specific than RDTs. METHODS We simulated a 1-time screening process in Côte d'Ivoire (CI; undiagnosed prevalence: 1.8%), comparing WHO- and CI-recommended RDT-based strategies (RDT-WHO, RDT-CI) and an alternative: POC NAT to resolve RDT discordancy (NAT-Resolve). Costs included assays (RDT: $1.47; POC NAT: $27.92), antiretroviral therapy ($6-$22/month), and HIV care ($27-$38/month). We modeled 2 sensitivity/specificity scenarios: high-performing (RDT: 99.9%/99.1%; POC NAT: 95.0%/100.0%) and low-performing (RDT: 91.1%/82.9%; POC NAT: 93.3%/99.5%). Outcomes included true-positive (TP), false-positive (FP), true-negative (TN), or false-negative (FN) results; life expectancy; costs; and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs: $/year of life saved [YLS]; threshold ≤$1720/YLS [per-capita gross domestic product]). RESULTS Model-projected impacts of misdiagnoses were 4.4 years lost (FN vs TP; range, 3.0-13.0 years) and a $5800 lifetime cost increase (FP vs TN; range, $590-$14 680). In the high-performing scenario, misdiagnoses/10 000 000 tested were lowest for NAT-Resolve vs RDT-based strategies (FN: 409 vs 413-429; FP: 14 vs 21-28). Strategies had similar life expectancy (228 months) and lifetime costs ($220/person) among all tested; ICERs were $3450/YLS (RDT-CI vs RDT-WHO) and $120 910/YLS (NAT-Resolve vs RDT-CI). In the low-performing scenario, misdiagnoses were higher (FN: 22 845-30 357; FP: 83 724-112 702) and NAT-Resolve was cost-saving. CONCLUSIONS We projected substantial clinical and economic impacts of misdiagnoses. Using POC NAT to resolve RDT discordancy generated the fewest misdiagnoses and was not cost-effective in high-performing scenarios, but may be an important adjunct to existing RDT-based strategies in low-performing scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne M Neilan
- Division of General Academic Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital for Children, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Medical Practice Evaluation Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jennifer Cohn
- Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Emma Sacks
- Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, Geneva, Switzerland
- Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Aditya R Gandhi
- Medical Practice Evaluation Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Rochelle P Walensky
- Medical Practice Evaluation Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Marc N Kouadio
- Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Kenneth A Freedberg
- Medical Practice Evaluation Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Andrea L Ciaranello
- Medical Practice Evaluation Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Tonen-Wolyec S, Koyalta D, Mboumba Bouassa RS, Filali M, Batina-Agasa S, Bélec L. HIV self-testing in adolescents living in Sub-Saharan Africa. Med Mal Infect 2020; 50:648-651. [PMID: 32798610 DOI: 10.1016/j.medmal.2020.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Less than 20% of African adolescents aged 10-19 years are aware of their HIV status, whereas HIV screening remains the gateway to care and while AIDS has become the leading cause of death among adolescents in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the UNAIDS target, scalable HIV testing strategies specific to various age groups, populations, and geographical areas must be implemented to end the AIDS epidemic by 2030. Many African countries have implemented policies supporting HIV self-testing (HIVST). Evidence of practicability and efficiency of HIVST in Sub-Saharan Africa settings has been reported, including HIVST data among adolescents. Adapted strategies of HIVST are urgently needed to promote HIV testing among adolescents living in sub-Saharan Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Tonen-Wolyec
- École Doctorale Régionale D'Afrique Centrale en Infectiologie Tropicale, Franceville, Gabon; Université de Kisangani, Faculté de Médecine et Pharmacie, Kisangani, République Démocratique du Congo.
| | - D Koyalta
- Onusida, et Université de N'Djamena, N'Djamena, Tchad
| | - R-S Mboumba Bouassa
- École Doctorale Régionale D'Afrique Centrale en Infectiologie Tropicale, Franceville, Gabon; Laboratoire de virologie, Hôpital Européen Georges-Pompidou, et Université Paris Descartes, Paris Sorbonne Cité, Paris, France
| | | | - S Batina-Agasa
- Université de Kisangani, Faculté de Médecine et Pharmacie, Kisangani, République Démocratique du Congo
| | - L Bélec
- Laboratoire de virologie, Hôpital Européen Georges-Pompidou, et Université Paris Descartes, Paris Sorbonne Cité, Paris, France
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7
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Wong V, Jenkins E, Ford N, Ingold H. To thine own test be true: HIV self-testing and the global reach for the undiagnosed. J Int AIDS Soc 2019; 22 Suppl 1:e25256. [PMID: 30912306 PMCID: PMC6433601 DOI: 10.1002/jia2.25256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Wong
- United States Agency for International Development (USAID)Global Health BureauOffice of HIV/AIDSPrevention Care and Treatment Division
| | - Erin Jenkins
- United States Agency for International Development (USAID)Global Health BureauOffice of HIV/AIDSPrevention Care and Treatment Division
| | - Nathan Ford
- HIV/AIDS DepartmentOrganisation mondiale de la SanteGenevaSwitzerland
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Eaton JW, Terris‐Prestholt F, Cambiano V, Sands A, Baggaley RC, Hatzold K, Corbett EL, Kalua T, Jahn A, Johnson CC. Optimizing HIV testing services in sub-Saharan Africa: cost and performance of verification testing with HIV self-tests and tests for triage. J Int AIDS Soc 2019; 22 Suppl 1:e25237. [PMID: 30907507 PMCID: PMC6545556 DOI: 10.1002/jia2.25237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Strategies employing a single rapid diagnostic test (RDT) such as HIV self-testing (HIVST) or "test for triage" (T4T) are proposed to increase HIV testing programme impact. Current guidelines recommend serial testing with two or three RDTs for HIV diagnosis, followed by retesting with the same algorithm to verify HIV-positive status before anti-retroviral therapy (ART) initiation. We investigated whether clients presenting to HIV testing services (HTS) following a single reactive RDT must undergo the diagnostic algorithm twice to diagnose and verify HIV-positive status, or whether a diagnosis with the setting-specific algorithm is adequate for ART initiation. METHODS We calculated (1) expected number of false-positive (FP) misclassifications per 10,000 HIV negative persons tested, (2) positive predictive value (PPV) of the overall HIV testing strategy compared to the WHO recommended PPV ≥99%, and (3) expected cost per FP misclassified person identified by additional verification testing in a typical low-/middle-income setting, compared to the expected lifetime ART cost of $3000. Scenarios considered were as follows: 10% prevalence using two serial RDTs for diagnosis, 1% prevalence using three serial RDTs, and calibration using programmatic data from Malawi in 2017 where the proportion of people testing HIV positive in facilities was 4%. RESULTS In the 10% HIV prevalence setting with a triage test, the expected number of FP misclassifications was 0.86 per 10,000 tested without verification testing and the PPV was 99.9%. In the 1% prevalence setting, expected FP misclassifications were 0.19 with 99.8% PPV, and in the Malawi 2017 calibrated setting the expected misclassifications were 0.08 with 99.98% PPV. The cost per FP identified by verification testing was $5879, $3770, and $24,259 respectively. Results were sensitive to assumptions about accuracy of self-reported reactive results and whether reactive triage test results influenced biased interpretation of subsequent RDT results by the HTS provider. CONCLUSIONS Diagnosis with the full algorithm following presentation with a reactive triage test is expected to achieve PPV above the 99% threshold. Continuing verification testing prior to ART initiation remains recommended, but HIV testing strategies involving HIVST and T4T may provide opportunities to maintain quality while increasing efficiency as part of broader restructuring of HIV testing service delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey W Eaton
- Department of Infectious Disease EpidemiologyImperial College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Fern Terris‐Prestholt
- Department of Global Health and DevelopmentLondon School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Valentina Cambiano
- Institute for Global HealthUniversity College LondonLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Anita Sands
- Essential Medicines and Health Products DepartmentWorld Health OrganizationGenevaSwitzerland
| | - Rachel C Baggaley
- Global HIV and Hepatitis DepartmentWorld Health OrganizationGenevaSwitzerland
| | - Karin Hatzold
- Population Services InternationalJohannesburgSouth Africa
| | - Elizabeth L Corbett
- Clinical Research DepartmentLondon School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineLondonUnited Kingdom
- Malawi Liverpool Wellcome Trust Clinical Research ProgrammeBlantyreMalawi
| | - Thoko Kalua
- Department of HIV/AIDSMinistry of HealthLilongweMalawi
| | - Andreas Jahn
- Department of HIV/AIDSMinistry of HealthLilongweMalawi
- International Training and Education Center for Health (I‐TECH)LilongweMalawi
| | - Cheryl C Johnson
- Global HIV and Hepatitis DepartmentWorld Health OrganizationGenevaSwitzerland
- Clinical Research DepartmentLondon School of Hygiene and Tropical MedicineLondonUnited Kingdom
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