1
|
Calleja-Felipe M, Wojtas MN, Diaz-González M, Ciceri D, Escribano R, Ouro A, Morales M, Knafo S. FORTIS: a live-cell assay to monitor AMPA receptors using pH-sensitive fluorescence tags. Transl Psychiatry 2021; 11:324. [PMID: 34045447 PMCID: PMC8160262 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01457-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The real-time live fluorescent monitoring of surface AMPA receptors (AMPARs) could open new opportunities for drug discovery and phenotypic screening concerning neuropsychiatric disorders. We have developed FORTIS, a tool based on pH sensitivity capable of detecting subtle changes in surface AMPARs at a neuronal population level. The expression of SEP-GluA1 or pHuji-GluA1 recombinant AMPAR subunits in mammalian neurons cultured in 96-well plates enables surface AMPARs to be monitored with a microplate reader. Thus, FORTIS can register rapid changes in surface AMPARs induced by drugs or genetic modifications without having to rely on conventional electrophysiology or imaging. By combining FORTIS with pharmacological manipulations, basal surface AMPARs, and plasticity-like changes can be monitored. We expect that employing FORTIS to screen for changes in surface AMPARs will accelerate both neuroscience research and drug discovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Calleja-Felipe
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, The National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, and The Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa, E-48940, Spain
| | - Magdalena Natalia Wojtas
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, The National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, and The Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Marta Diaz-González
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, The National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, and The Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Dalila Ciceri
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa, E-48940, Spain
| | - Raúl Escribano
- Fundación Biofísica Bizkaia/Biofisika Bizkaia Fundazioa (FBB), Barrio Sarriena s/n, Leioa, E-48940, Spain
| | - Alberto Ouro
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, The National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, and The Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Miguel Morales
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa, E-48940, Spain
| | - Shira Knafo
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, The National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, and The Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa, E-48940, Spain.
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, 48013, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Kang DS, Yang YR, Lee C, Park B, Park KI, Seo JK, Seo YK, Cho H, Lucio C, Suh PG. Netrin-1/DCC-mediated PLCγ1 activation is required for axon guidance and brain structure development. EMBO Rep 2018; 19:embr.201846250. [PMID: 30224412 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201846250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Revised: 08/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Coordinated expression of guidance molecules and their signal transduction are critical for correct brain wiring. Previous studies have shown that phospholipase C gamma1 (PLCγ1), a signal transducer of receptor tyrosine kinases, plays a specific role in the regulation of neuronal cell morphology and motility in vitro However, several questions remain regarding the extracellular stimulus that triggers PLCγ1 signaling and the exact role PLCγ1 plays in nervous system development. Here, we demonstrate that PLCγ1 mediates axonal guidance through a netrin-1/deleted in colorectal cancer (DCC) complex. Netrin-1/DCC activates PLCγ1 through Src kinase to induce actin cytoskeleton rearrangement. Neuronal progenitor-specific knockout of Plcg1 in mice causes axon guidance defects in the dorsal part of the mesencephalon during embryogenesis. Adult Plcg1-deficient mice exhibit structural alterations in the corpus callosum, substantia innominata, and olfactory tubercle. These results suggest that PLCγ1 plays an important role in the correct development of white matter structure by mediating netrin-1/DCC signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Du-Seock Kang
- School of Life Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, Korea.,College of Life Science & Bioengineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science & Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Korea
| | - Yong Ryoul Yang
- School of Life Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, Korea
| | - Cheol Lee
- School of Life Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, Korea
| | - BumWoo Park
- School of Life Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, Korea
| | - Kwang Il Park
- School of Life Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, Korea
| | - Jeong Kon Seo
- UNIST Central Research Facility, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, Korea
| | - Young Kyo Seo
- School of Life Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, Korea
| | - HyungJoon Cho
- School of Life Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, Korea
| | - Cocco Lucio
- Cellular Signaling Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Pann-Ghill Suh
- School of Life Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Dolivo DM, Larson SA, Dominko T. Fibroblast Growth Factor 2 as an Antifibrotic: Antagonism of Myofibroblast Differentiation and Suppression of Pro-Fibrotic Gene Expression. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2017; 38:49-58. [PMID: 28967471 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2017.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Fibrosis is a pathological condition that is characterized by the replacement of dead or damaged tissue with a nonfunctional, mechanically aberrant scar, and fibrotic pathologies account for nearly half of all deaths worldwide. The causes of fibrosis differ somewhat from tissue to tissue and pathology to pathology, but in general some of the cellular and molecular mechanisms remain constant regardless of the specific pathology in question. One of the common mechanisms underlying fibroses is the paradigm of the activated fibroblast, termed the "myofibroblast," a differentiated mesenchymal cell with demonstrated contractile activity and a high rate of collagen deposition. Fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), one of the members of the mammalian fibroblast growth factor family, is a cytokine with demonstrated antifibrotic activity in non-human animal, human, and in vitro models. FGF2 is highly pleiotropic and its receptors are present on many different cell types throughout the body, lending a great deal of variety to the potential mechanisms of FGF2 effects on fibrosis. However, recent reports demonstrate that a substantial contribution to the antifibrotic effects of FGF2 comes from the inhibitory effects of FGF2 on connective tissue fibroblasts, activated myofibroblasts, and myofibroblast progenitors. FGF2 demonstrates effects antagonistic towards fibroblast activation and towards mesenchymal transition of potential myofibroblast-forming cells, as well as promotes a gene expression paradigm more reminiscent of regenerative healing, such as that which occurs in the fetal wound healing response, than fibrotic resolution. With a better understanding of the mechanisms by which FGF2 alters the wound healing cascade and results in a shift away from scar formation and towards functional tissue regeneration, we may be able to further address the critical need of therapy for varied fibrotic pathologies across myriad tissue types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David M Dolivo
- Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Department of Biology and Biotechnology,100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA, 01609, United States
| | - Sara A Larson
- Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Department of Biology and Biotechnology,100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA, 01609, United States
| | - Tanja Dominko
- Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Department of Biology and Biotechnology,100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA, 01609, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Makani V, Jang YG, Christopher K, Judy W, Eckstein J, Hensley K, Chiaia N, Kim DS, Park J. BBB-Permeable, Neuroprotective, and Neurotrophic Polysaccharide, Midi-GAGR. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149715. [PMID: 26939023 PMCID: PMC4777489 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
An enormous amount of efforts have been poured to find an effective therapeutic agent for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Among those, neurotrophic peptides that regenerate neuronal structures and increase neuron survival show a promise in slowing neurodegeneration. However, the short plasma half-life and poor blood-brain-barrier (BBB)-permeability of neurotrophic peptides limit their in vivo efficacy. Thus, an alternative neurotrophic agent that has longer plasma half-life and better BBB-permeability has been sought for. Based on the recent findings of neuroprotective polysaccharides, we searched for a BBB-permeable neuroprotective polysaccharide among natural polysaccharides that are approved for human use. Then, we discovered midi-GAGR, a BBB-permeable, long plasma half-life, strong neuroprotective and neurotrophic polysaccharide. Midi-GAGR is a 4.7kD cleavage product of low acyl gellan gum that is approved by FDA for human use. Midi-GAGR protected rodent cortical neurons not only from the pathological concentrations of co-/post-treated free reactive radicals and Aβ42 peptide but also from activated microglial cells. Moreover, midi-GAGR showed a good neurotrophic effect; it enhanced neurite outgrowth and increased phosphorylated cAMP-responsive element binding protein (pCREB) in the nuclei of primary cortical neurons. Furthermore, intra-nasally administered midi-GAGR penetrated the BBB and exerted its neurotrophic effect inside the brain for 24 h after one-time administration. Midi-GAGR appears to activate fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) and its downstream neurotrophic signaling pathway for neuroprotection and CREB activation. Additionally, 14-day intranasal administration of midi-GAGR not only increased neuronal activity markers but also decreased hyperphosphorylated tau, a precursor of neurofibrillary tangle, in the brains of the AD mouse model, 3xTg-AD. Taken together, midi-GAGR with good BBB-permeability, long plasma half-life, and strong neuroprotective and neurotrophic effects has a great therapeutic potential for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, especially AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vishruti Makani
- Department of Neurosciences, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Yong-gil Jang
- Department of Neurosciences, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Kevin Christopher
- Department of Neurosciences, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Wesley Judy
- Department of Neurosciences, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Jacob Eckstein
- Department of Neurosciences, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Kenneth Hensley
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Nicolas Chiaia
- Department of Neurosciences, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Dong-Shik Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Joshua Park
- Department of Neurosciences, College of Medicine and Life Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Klein R, Blaschke S, Neumaier B, Endepols H, Graf R, Keuters M, Hucklenbroich J, Albrechtsen M, Rees S, Fink GR, Schroeter M, Rueger MA. The synthetic NCAM mimetic peptide FGL mobilizes neural stem cells in vitro and in vivo. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2015; 10:539-47. [PMID: 24817672 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-014-9512-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) plays a role in neurite outgrowth, synaptogenesis, and neuronal differentiation. The NCAM mimetic peptide FG Loop (FGL) promotes neuronal survival in vitro and enhances spatial learning and memory in rats. We here investigated the effects of FGL on neural stem cells (NSC) in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, cell proliferation of primary NSC was assessed after exposure to various concentrations of NCAM or FGL. The differentiation potential of NCAM- or FGL-treated cells was assessed immunocytochemically. To investigate its influence on endogenous NSC in vivo, FGL was injected subcutaneously into adult rats. The effects on NSC mobilization were studied both via non-invasive positron emission tomography (PET) imaging using the tracer [(18)F]-fluoro-L-thymidine ([(18)F]FLT), as well as with immunohistochemistry. Only FGL significantly enhanced NSC proliferation in vitro, with a maximal effect at 10 μg/ml. During differentiation, NCAM promoted neurogenesis, while FGL induced an oligodendroglial phenotype; astrocytic differentiation was neither affected by NCAM or FGL. Those differential effects of NCAM and FGL on differentiation were mediated through different receptors. After FGL-injection in vivo, proliferative activity of NSC in the subventricular zone (SVZ) was increased (compared to placebo-treated animals). Moreover, non-invasive imaging of cell proliferation using [(18)F]FLT-PET supported an FGL-induced mobilization of NSC from both the SVZ and the hippocampus. We conclude that FGL robustly induces NSC mobilization in vitro and in vivo, and supports oligodendroglial differentiation. This capacity renders FGL a promising agent to facilitate remyelinization, which may eventually make FGL a drug candidate for demyelinating neurological disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Klein
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Cologne, Kerpener Strasse 62, 50924, Cologne, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Xu R, Feyeux M, Julien S, Nemes C, Albrechtsen M, Dinnyés A, Krause KH. Screening of bioactive peptides using an embryonic stem cell-based neurodifferentiation assay. AAPS JOURNAL 2014; 16:400-12. [PMID: 24557747 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-014-9578-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Differentiation of pluripotent stem cells, PSCs, towards neural lineages has attracted significant attention, given the potential use of such cells for in vitro studies and for regenerative medicine. The present experiments were designed to identify bioactive peptides which direct PSC differentiation towards neural cells. Fifteen peptides were designed based on NCAM, FGFR, and growth factors sequences. The effect of peptides was screened using a mouse embryonic stem cell line expressing luciferase dual reporter construct driven by promoters for neural tubulin and for elongation factor 1. Cell number was estimated by measuring total cellular DNA. We identified five peptides which enhanced activities of both promoters without relevant changes in cell number. We selected the two most potent peptides for further analysis: the NCAM-derived mimetic FGLL and the synthetic NCAM ligand, Plannexin. Both compounds induced phenotypic neuronal differentiation, as evidenced by increased neurite outgrowth. In summary, we used a simple, but sensitive screening approach to identify the neurogenic peptides. These peptides will not only provide new clues concerning pathways of neurogenesis, but they may also be interesting biotechnology tools for in vitro generation of neurons.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruodan Xu
- ENKAM Pharmaceuticals A/S, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Knafo S, Venero C, Sánchez-Puelles C, Pereda-Peréz I, Franco A, Sandi C, Suárez LM, Solís JM, Alonso-Nanclares L, Martín ED, Merino-Serrais P, Borcel E, Li S, Chen Y, Gonzalez-Soriano J, Berezin V, Bock E, DeFelipe J, Esteban JA. Facilitation of AMPA receptor synaptic delivery as a molecular mechanism for cognitive enhancement. PLoS Biol 2012; 10:e1001262. [PMID: 22363206 PMCID: PMC3283560 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2011] [Accepted: 01/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell adhesion molecules and downstream growth factor-dependent signaling are critical for brain development and synaptic plasticity, and they have been linked to cognitive function in adult animals. We have previously developed a mimetic peptide (FGL) from the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) that enhances spatial learning and memory in rats. We have now investigated the cellular and molecular basis of this cognitive enhancement, using biochemical, morphological, electrophysiological, and behavioral analyses. We have found that FGL triggers a long-lasting enhancement of synaptic transmission in hippocampal CA1 neurons. This effect is mediated by a facilitated synaptic delivery of AMPA receptors, which is accompanied by enhanced NMDA receptor-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP). Both LTP and cognitive enhancement are mediated by an initial PKC activation, which is followed by persistent CaMKII activation. These results provide a mechanistic link between facilitation of AMPA receptor synaptic delivery and improved hippocampal-dependent learning, induced by a pharmacological cognitive enhancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shira Knafo
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa,” Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)/Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto Cajal (CSIC), Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - César Venero
- Department of Psychobiology, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina Sánchez-Puelles
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa,” Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)/Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Ana Franco
- Centro Nacional Biotecnología (CSIC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Sandi
- Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - Luz M. Suárez
- Instituto Cajal (CSIC), Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
- Servicio de Neurobiología-Investigación, Hospital Ramón y Cajal, IRYCIS, Madrid, Spain
| | - José M. Solís
- Servicio de Neurobiología-Investigación, Hospital Ramón y Cajal, IRYCIS, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lidia Alonso-Nanclares
- Instituto Cajal (CSIC), Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Eduardo D. Martín
- Departamento de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad de Castilla-la Mancha, Albacete, Spain
| | - Paula Merino-Serrais
- Instituto Cajal (CSIC), Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Erika Borcel
- Department of Psychobiology, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
| | - Shizhong Li
- Protein Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Yongshuo Chen
- Protein Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Juncal Gonzalez-Soriano
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Vladimir Berezin
- Protein Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Elisabeth Bock
- Protein Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Javier DeFelipe
- Instituto Cajal (CSIC), Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - José A. Esteban
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa,” Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)/Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Neuritogenic and neuroprotective properties of peptide agonists of the fibroblast growth factor receptor. Int J Mol Sci 2010; 11:2291-305. [PMID: 20640153 PMCID: PMC2904917 DOI: 10.3390/ijms11062291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2010] [Accepted: 05/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) interact with their cognate ligands, FGFs, and with a number of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), such as the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), mediating a wide range of events during the development and maintenance of the nervous system. Determination of protein structure, in silico modeling and biological studies have recently resulted in the identification of FGFR binding peptides derived from various FGFs and NCAM mimicking the effects of these molecules with regard to their neuritogenic and neuroprotective properties. This review focuses on recently developed functional peptide agonists of FGFR with possible therapeutic potential.
Collapse
|