(1-3)(1-6)-β-glucan-enriched materials from Lentinus edodes mushroom as a high-fibre and low-calorie flour substitute for baked foods

Mushroom β-glucans: application and innovation for food industry and immunotherapy

Among the most important sources of β-glucans are edible and medicinal mushrooms. These molecules are components of the cellular wall of basidiomycete fungi (mushrooms) and can be extracted even from the basidiocarp as the mycelium and its cultivation extracts or biomasses. Mushroom β-glucans are recognized by their potential effects as immunostimulants and immunosuppressants. They are highlighted as anticholesterolemic, anti-inflammatory, adjuvant in diabetes mellitus, mycotherapy for cancer treatment, as well as adjuvants for COVID-19 vaccines. Due to their relevance, several techniques of β-glucans extraction, purification, and analysis have already been described. Despite the previous knowledge of β-glucans' benefits for human nutrition and health, the main information about this topic refers to the molecular identification, properties, and benefits, as well as their synthesis and action on cells. Studies on biotechnology industry applications (product development) and the registered products of β-glucans from mushrooms are still limited and more common for feed and healthcare. In this context, this paper reviews the biotechnological production of food products containing β-glucans from basidiomycete fungi, focusing on food enrichment, and presents a new perspective on fungi β-glucans' use as potential immunotherapy agents. KEY POINTS: • Mushrooms' β-glucans for product development in the biotechnology industry • Biotechnological production of food products containing mushrooms' β-glucans • Basidiomycete fungi β-glucans are used as potential immunotherapy agents.

Evaluation of Immune Modulation by β-1,3; 1,6 D-Glucan Derived from Ganoderma lucidum in Healthy Adult Volunteers, A Randomized Controlled Trial

Fungi-derived β-glucan, a type of glucopolysaccharide, has been shown to possess immune-modulatory properties in clinical settings. Studies have indicated that β-glucan derived from Ganoderma lucidum (commonly known as Reishi) holds particular promise in this regard, both in laboratory and in vivo settings. To further investigate the efficacy and safety of Reishi β-glucan in human subjects, a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted among healthy adult volunteers aged 18 to 55. Participants were instructed to self-administer the interventions or placebos on a daily basis for 84 days, with bloodwork assessments conducted at the beginning and end of the study. The results of the trial showed that subjects in the intervention group, who received Reishi β-glucan, exhibited a significant enhancement in various immune cell populations, including CD3+, CD4+, CD8+ T-lymphocytes, as well as an improvement in the CD4/CD8 ratio and natural killer cell counts when compared to the placebo group. Additionally, a statistically significant difference was observed in serum immunoglobulin A levels and natural killer cell cytotoxicity between the intervention and placebo groups. Notably, the intervention was found to be safe and well tolerated, with no statistically significant changes observed in markers of kidney or liver function in either group. Overall, the study provides evidence for the ability of Reishi β-glucan to modulate immune responses in healthy adults, thereby potentially bolstering their defense against opportunistic infections.

Identifying key factors and strategies for reducing oil content in fried instant noodles

Fried instant noodles have become a popular instant food in recent years, favored by consumers for their unique flavor and taste. Unfortunately, the oil content of instant noodles is generally high, so the rise of fat-related diseases poses a major health issue. From the perspective of the cost of instant noodle manufacturers and the health of consumers, it is of great significance to reduce the oil content of instant noodles. The aim of this review article is to provide an overview of the main factors, such as raw materials and production processes, affecting oil content in instant noodles in order to suggest specific strategies to reduce the oil content in the end product. From the literature reviewed, adding acetylated potato starch/carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, or preharvest-dropped apple powder in the noodle formulation could be a better choice to reduce oil uptake by 5%-20%. Instant noodles with lower oil content can be produced using novel alternative frying technologies, including microwave and vacuum frying. The proper management of the production processes and the implementation of enhancement strategies may result in a reduction of oil content in the end product.

Bioconversion of High-Calorie Potato Starch to Low-Calorie β-Glucan via 3D Printing Using Pleurotus eryngii Mycelia

Edible fungi play an important role in material and energy cycling. This study explored the role of Pleurotus eryngii mycelia in the transformation of potato high-calorie starch to low-calorie β-glucan. First, the 3D printing performance of the potato medium was optimized. After inoculating the fermentation broth of Pleurotus eryngii in 3D printing, we studied the microstructure and material composition of the product. Along with the increase in 3D printing filling ratio, the starch content of the culture product decreased from 84.18% to 60.35%, while the starch content in the solid medium prepared using the mold was 67.74%. The change in β-glucan content in cultured products was opposite to that of starch, and the content of the culture product increased from 12.57% to 24.31%, while the β-glucan content in the solid medium prepared using the mold was 22.17%. The amino acid composition and content of the 3D printing culture system and solid culture products prepared using the mold were similar. The 3D printing culture system promoted the bioconversion efficiency of mycelia. It also showed high application potential of Pleurotus eryngii mycelia for the preparation of low-calorie food.

From Cancer Therapy to Winemaking: The Molecular Structure and Applications of β-Glucans and β-1, 3-Glucanases

β-glucans are a diverse group of polysaccharides composed of β-1,3 or β-(1,3-1,4) linked glucose monomers. They are mainly synthesized by fungi, plants, seaweed and bacteria, where they carry out structural, protective and energy storage roles. Because of their unique physicochemical properties, they have important applications in several industrial, biomedical and biotechnological processes. β-glucans are also major bioactive molecules with marked immunomodulatory and metabolic properties. As such, they have been the focus of many studies attesting to their ability to, among other roles, fight cancer, reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases and control diabetes. The physicochemical and functional profiles of β-glucans are deeply influenced by their molecular structure. This structure governs β-glucan interaction with multiple β-glucan binding proteins, triggering myriad biological responses. It is then imperative to understand the structural properties of β-glucans to fully reveal their biological roles and potential applications. The deconstruction of β-glucans is a result of β-glucanase activity. In addition to being invaluable tools for the study of β-glucans, these enzymes have applications in numerous biotechnological and industrial processes, both alone and in conjunction with their natural substrates. Here, we review potential applications for β-glucans and β-glucanases, and explore how their functionalities are dictated by their structure.

Subchronic toxicity and genotoxicity studies of Hericium erinaceus β-glucan extract preparation

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β-Glucan from Hericium erinaceus was investigated for subchronic toxicity and mutagenicity.

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In the subchronic study, The No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level (NOAEL) for Hericium erinaceus β-glucan was 2000 mg/kg bw/day.

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In mutagenicity studies, Hericium erinaceus β-glucan did not reveal genotoxic effects.

The medicinal effects of Hericium erinaceus have been long documented in scientific studies of Eastern traditional medicine. It is widely consumed, because of its nutritional qualities and perceived health benefits. Also, it is rich in β-glucans, which has been shown to have immunomodulating and antitumor effects. The objective of the present study was to investigate adverse effects, if any, of β-glucan extract preparation from H. erinaceus in subchronic toxicity and genotoxicity studies. The conduct of these studies was in compliance with Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) and test guidelines established by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). In the subchronic toxicity study, Sprague Dawley rats (12/sex/group) were administered (gavage) H. erinaceus β-glucan extract preparation at dose levels of 0, 500, 1000 and 2000 mg/kg body weight (bw)/day for 90 days. Treatment with H. erinaceus β-glucan extract preparation did not result in any toxicologically significant treatment-related changes in clinical observations, ophthalmic examinations, body weights, body weight gains, feed consumption, and organ weights. Clinical pathology including hematology, serum chemistry, urinalysisand terminal necropsy (gross or histopathology findings) did not reveal any treatment-related adverse effects. The results of genotoxicity studies as evaluated by gene mutations in Salmonella typhimurium, in vitro chromosome aberrations and in vivo micronucleus test in mice did not reveal any genotoxicity of H. erinaceus β-glucan extract preparation. Based on the subchronic study, the no observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) for H. erinaceus β-glucan extract preparation was determined as 2000 mg/kg bw/day, the highest dose tested.

Development of Antioxidant-Fortified Oleogel and Its Application as a Solid Fat Replacer to Muffin

Oleogelation has recently received a great deal of attention in the food industry as a novel alternative technology that physically converts liquid oil into semi-solid gel. Since the functional characteristics of oleogels are dependent on the gelators or bioactive compounds incorporated, this study was undertaken to evaluate the rheological properties and oxidative stability of candelilla wax oleogels fortified with glycerol monostearate (GMS) and β-carotene, and also to investigate their applications to muffin as a shortening replacer. The interaction between candelilla wax and GMS contributed to strengthening the oleogel structure. The oleogels with β-carotene showed the lowest peroxide values than the other samples. The muffins prepared with oleogels for shortening had greater specific gravity and harder texture, but there was no significant difference in the specific volume between the shortening and oleogel samples with GMS. In addition, muffins with β-carotene oleogels showed the highest oxidative stability. Therefore, this study indicated that the incorporation of β-carotene and GMS in oleogels positively affected the storage stability of muffin.

Edible Mushrooms as a Natural Source of Food Ingredient/Additive Replacer

Although mushrooms have been exploited since ancient times because of their particular taste and therapeutic properties, the interest in edible species as a source of ingredients and bioactive compounds is recent. Their valuable nutritional contents in protein, dietary fiber and bioactive compounds make them ideal candidates for use in foods in efforts to improve their nutritional profiles. This trend is in line with the consumer's growing demand for more plant-based foods. The present review paper explores different studies focused on the use of common edible mushrooms as an ingredient and additive replacer by using them in fresh, dried, or even extract forms, as meat, fat, flour, salt, phosphates, and antioxidant replacers. The replacement of meat, fat, flour, and salt by mushrooms from commercial species has been successful despite sensorial and textural parameters can be affected. Moderate concentrations of mushrooms, especially in powder form, should be considered, particularly in non-familiarized consumers. In the case of antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, results are variable, and more studies are necessary to determine the chemical aspects involved.

Biotechnological Addition of β-Glucans from Cereals, Mushrooms and Yeasts in Foods and Animal Feed

Varied cereal plants including, mushrooms, yeast, bacteria and algae are important sources of β-glucans, and many extraction procedures have been used in order to recover these valuable naturally occurring polysaccharides. The rheological and molecular properties of β-glucans can be utilized to be incorporated into various foods and to offer properties extremely beneficial to human health. Their functional effects are mainly determined by their molecular and structural characteristics. Consumption of foods fortified and enriched with β-glucans can contribute to the treatment of certain chronic diseases. Reduced cholesterol, cardiovascular and diabetic risk and moderate glycemic response of foods have been recorded with the consumption of these biologically active compounds. In addition, β-glucans are characterized by anti-cancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiviral activities. As β-glucans interact with the foods in which they are incorporated, this review aims to discuss recent applications with quality and nutritional results of β-glucans incorporation with foods such as beverages, dairy, bakery, meat and pasta products, as well as their addition in animal feeds and their uses in other fields such as medicine.

The Inhibitory Effects of Hericium erinaceus β-glucan on in vitro Starch Digestion

β-glucan has attracted extensive attention due to its health promoting effects, such as lowering the blood sugar and lipids levels, and enhancing immunity. In this study, three different β-glucans (HEBG-1, HEBG-2, HEBG-3) were obtained from Hericium erinaceus by sodium hydroxide, β-1,3-glucanase and β-1,6-glucanase, respectively. The effects of the glucans on in vitro digestion of wheat starch were investigated by Englyst method. We found that addition of HEBGs significantly reduced the digestibility of starch, showing as decreased RDS and pGI, and increased SDS and RS content. In addition, the inhibitory effects positively correlated with the molecular weight of HEBG. The triple helix structure in HEBG plays important roles in inhibiting starch digestion. And β-1,3- glucan showed stronger inhibitor effects than those of β-1,6- glucan. This study unravels the mechanism of HEBG on inhibition of starch digestion and provides a theoretical understanding for the application of edible mushroom β-glucan to the development of low glycemic index starchy foods.

Functional Characterization of Marigold Powder as a Food Ingredient for Lutein-Fortified Fresh Noodles

Marigold powder was utilized as a food ingredient to produce lutein-fortified fresh noodles for eye health, and its functionalities were characterized in terms of thermo-rheological, structural, and antioxidant properties. The pasting parameters and starch-gelatinization enthalpy values of wheat flour had a tendency to decrease with increasing levels of marigold powder. The use of marigold powder led to decreases in the storage and loss moduli of wheat flour pastes by weakening their cellular microstructure, which was confirmed by the scanning electron microscopic images. When marigold powder was incorporated into the formulation of fresh noodles, the cooking loss and water absorption of the noodles were not negatively affected at a level of 2% (w/w). Also, the noodles with 2% marigold powder were not significantly different from the control for the maximum resistance to extension. The levels of lutein in the noodles prepared with marigold powder (61.2 to 204.9 mg/100 g) were reduced by almost 50% after cooking. However, they seemed to satisfy the recommended daily dose of lutein for visual functions. Moreover, the use of marigold powder provided antioxidant properties for noodles by enhancing the 2,2′-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical-scavenging activities.

Genoprotective Properties and Metabolites of β-Glucan-Rich Edible Mushrooms Following Their In Vitro Fermentation by Human Faecal Microbiota

A variety of bioactive compounds, constituents of edible mushrooms, in particular β-glucans, i.e., a group of β-d-glucose polysaccharides abundant in the fungal cell walls, have been linked to immunomodulating, anticancer and prebiotic activities. The aim of the study was the investigation of the genoprotective effects of edible mushrooms produced by Pleurotus eryngii, Pleurotus ostreatus and Cyclocybe cylindracea (Basidiomycota). Mushrooms from selected strains of the species mentioned above were fermented in vitro using faecal inocula from healthy volunteers. The cytotoxic and anti-genotoxic properties of the fermentation supernatants (FSs) were investigated in Caco-2 human colon adenocarcinoma cells. The FSs were cytotoxic in a dose-dependent manner. Non-cytotoxic concentrations were used for the genotoxicity studies, which revealed that mushrooms’ FSs have the ability to protect Caco-2 cells against tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BOOH), a known genotoxic agent. Their global metabolic profiling was assessed by ¹H-NMR spectroscopy. A total of 37 metabolites were identified with the use of two-dimensional (2D) homo- and hetero-nuclear NMR experiments. Multivariate data analysis monitored the metabolic variability of gut microbiota and probed to biomarkers potentially associated with the health-promoting effects of edible mushrooms.

A Concise Review on the Molecular Structure and Function Relationship of β-Glucan

β-glucan is a non-starch soluble polysaccharide widely present in yeast, mushrooms, bacteria, algae, barley, and oat. β-Glucan is regarded as a functional food ingredient due to its various health benefits. The high molecular weight (Mw) and high viscosity of β-glucan are responsible for its hypocholesterolemic and hypoglycemic properties. Thus, β-glucan is also used in the food industry for the production of functional food products. The inherent gel-forming property and high viscosity of β-glucan lead to the production of low-fat foods with improved textural properties. Various studies have reported the relationship between the molecular structure of β-glucan and its functionality. The structural characteristics of β-glucan, including specific glycosidic linkages, monosaccharide compositions, Mw, and chain conformation, were reported to affect its physiochemical and biological properties. Researchers have also reported some chemical, physical, and enzymatic treatments can successfully alter the molecular structure and functionalities of β-glucan. This review article attempts to review the available literature on the relationship of the molecular structure of β-glucan with its functionalities, and future perspectives in this area.

Effect of Pleurotus ostreatus powder addition in vegetable soup on ß-glucan content, sensory perception, and acceptability

Pleurotus ostreatus is an edible mushroom with interesting nutritional properties, which is able to grow on agri-food waste and could in turn be used as an ingredient for food fortification. However, new food products have to face with the growing consumer consciousness about what they eat and hedonic responses, which represent a key factor in determining food preference and choices. The aim of this study was to design a vegetable-based product (a pumpkin and carrot soup) added with increasing concentration of P. ostreatus powder rich in β-glucans, which are fibers with demonstrated bioactivity in humans, and to obtain a sensory description of these fortified products to find the desirable and undesirable sensory properties that affect their acceptance. A total of 109 subjects (women N = 52; men N = 57; age = 36.1 ± 14.4 years) evaluated five samples of pumpkin and carrot soup added with increasing concentrations of mushroom powder (0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, and a hidden control at 0%) for liking and sensory properties by means of the check-all-that-apply method. Results showed that creaminess, orange color, mild odor, and taste were positively related to vegetable soups liking, whereas strong taste, dark color, and mushroom odor described the less liked samples. Sample added with 2% of mushroom powder obtained comparable liking scores to the unmodified sample, while liking decreased with increasing concentration of P. ostreatus powder. The present results demonstrated that it is possible to fortify a vegetable soup with P. ostreatus powder developing well-accepted foods by consumers. This product could be used to implement an everyday dietary intervention of β-glucans over a long-term period.

Exopolysaccharides from Basidiomycota: Formation, isolation and techno-functional properties

This Mini Review gives an overview of and respective references for the production and properties of exopolysaccharides from Basidiomycota in submerged cultivation. Media and conditions that are usually applied in laboratory culture are summarized, and the lack of studies related to up-scaling is addressed. Procedures for isolation and purification of the exopolysaccharides from the fermentation media are reviewed, and challenges related to exopolysaccharide quantification are discussed. Finally, the techno-functional properties of the respective exopolysaccharides, and potential applications in foods are addressed.

Effect of shortening replacement with oleogels on the rheological and tomographic characteristics of aerated baked goods

BACKGROUND

A great deal of effort has been made to reduce the use of shortening owing to the high level of saturated fats as well as the presence of trans fats. Grape seed oil high in unsaturated fats was structured with candelilla wax to form solid-like oleogels that were utilized as a shortening replacer in aerated baked goods, specifically muffins.

RESULTS

Muffin batters with greater amounts of oleogels exhibited lower viscosity, greater shear-thinning behavior and less elastic nature. The shortening replacement with oleogels significantly increased the specific gravity of the batters, consequently affecting the muffin volume after baking. X-ray tomography indicated a lower fragmentation index (i.e. a more connected solid structure) in the oleogel-incorporated muffins, which was correlated with more enclosed and isolated air cells. A stress relaxation test showed that the shortening replacement with oleogels produced muffins with a firmer and springier texture. Based on fatty acid compositions, the ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids was significantly reduced from 2.81 to 0.41.

CONCLUSION

Use of the oleogels as a shortening replacer at a ratio of 1:3 by weight was effective in producing muffins with comparable quality attributes to the control with shortening. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Sensory, nutritional and quality attributes of sponge cake supplemented with mushroom (agaricus bisporus) powder

Purpose

The purpose of this paper was to evaluate the quality characteristics of white button mushroom powder enrichment in sponge cake. The developed product can be a promising inclusion in the convenience functional foods and would serve the purpose of improving nutritional status of consumers.

Design/methodology/approach

Cakes containing graded levels of agaricus bisporus (white button mushroom) powder were prepared by replacing wheat flour with 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 per cent mushroom powder. The effect of mushroom powder supplementation on physical, nutritive and sensory quality of the cakes was evaluated and analyzed statistically using Agres-Agdata software.

Findings

Batter density and specific volume of cake samples decreased with increasing levels of mushroom powder in the formulation, which is contrary to the knowledge that they are inversely proportional. For 20 per cent enrichment, batter density and specific volume decreased by 8.23 and 5.79 per cent, respectively. There was no significant difference in individual organoleptic attributes of cake samples up to a level of 20 per cent fortification of mushroom powder, with significant nutrient enrichment (p > 0.05).

Originality/value

Replacing flour in cakes has been tried with many protein-rich ingredients to improve the nutritional quality of cake although with limiting success when it comes to sensorial acceptability. Mushroom powder was incorporated in the formulation to enrich sponge cakes. The processing technology will also reduce post-harvest losses in mushrooms and improve the nutritional status of society.

Effect of Pleurotus eryngii Mushroom β-Glucan on Quality Characteristics of Common Wheat Pasta

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of β-glucan-rich fractions (BGRFs) from Pleurotus eryngii mushroom powder on the quality, textural properties, and sensory evaluation of common wheat pasta. Pasta was prepared from semolina flour and common wheat flour by replacing common wheat flour at 2%, 4%, and 6% with BGRFs. Semolina flour showed significantly higher viscosities than common wheat flour samples. However, all viscosities, except the breakdown viscosity, were reduced with increasing percentages of BGRFs. Replacement of the common wheat flour with BGRFs resulted in a reddish brown colored pasta with a lower L* value and a higher a* value. The common wheat pastas containing up to 4% BGRFs were not significantly different from semolina pasta with regard to cooking loss. Addition of up to 2% BGRFs had no significant impact on swelling index and water absorption. The addition of BGRFs in common wheat flour had a positive effect on the quality of common wheat pasta and resulted in hardness values similar to those of semolina pasta. In a sensory evaluation, cooked pasta with 2% BGRFs had the highest overall acceptability score. In summary, the results showed that common wheat flour containing 4% BGRFs could be used to produce pasta with an improved quality and texture properties similar to semolina pasta.