Regulation of bovine oocyte-specific transcripts during in vitro oocyte maturation and after maternal-embryonic transition analyzed using a transcriptomic approach

The impact of transcription inhibition during in vitro maturation on the proteome of bovine oocytes†

Proper oocyte maturation is a prerequisite for successful reproduction and requires the resumption of meiosis to the metaphase II stage (MII). In bovine oocytes, nuclear maturation has been shown to occur in in vitro maturing cumulus-enclosed oocytes (COCs) in the absence of transcription, but their developmental capacity is reduced compared to transcriptionally competent COCs. To assess the impact of transcription during in vitro maturation of bovine COCs on the quantitative oocyte proteome, a holistic nano-LC-MS/MS analysis of germinal vesicle oocytes and MII oocytes matured with or without addition of the transcription inhibitor actinomycin D (ActD) was carried out. Analyzing eight biological replicates for each of the three groups, a total of 2018 proteins was identified. These could be clearly classified into proteins depending or not depending on transcription during oocyte maturation. Proteins whose abundance increased after maturation irrespective of transcription inhibition - and hence independent of transcription - were related to the cell cycle, reflecting the progression of meiosis, and to cellular component organization, which is crucial for cytoplasmic maturation. In contrast, transcription-dependent proteins were associated with cell-cell adhesion and translation. Since a high rate of protein synthesis in oocytes has been shown to correlate with their developmental competence, oocyte maturation in transcriptionally impaired COCs is apparently disturbed. Our experiments reveal that impaired transcription during in vitro maturation of COCs has a substantial effect on specific components of the oocyte proteome, and that transcription is required for specific classes of oocyte proteins predominantly involved in translation.

Differential gene expression between in vivo and in vitro maturation: a comparative study with bovine oocytes derived from the same donor pool

Objective:

In vitro maturation has been shown to influence gene expression in oocytes, but a common shortcoming in reports on the matter has been the use of different donors in each experimental group thus disregarding donor effects. This study aimed to investigate the abundance of mRNA in oocytes matured in vivo and in vitro obtained from the same group of donors.

Methods:

A bovine model was used to assess the relative abundance of specific transcripts in in vitro-matured (IN VITRO-OPU) and in vivo-matured (IN VIVO-OPU) oocytes collected from the same donors by transvaginal ovum pick-up (OPU). Transcript abundance in oocytes from the IN VIVO-OPU group and oocytes matured in vitro but retrieved from different cows slaughtered at a commercial abattoir (IN VITRO-Abattoir group) was also compared. Total RNA was extracted from denuded oocytes and cDNA was produced via reverse transcription using an oligo(dT) primer for relative quantification of eight target transcripts by real-time PCR.

Results:

Oocytes in the IN VITRO-OPU group had lower (p<0.05) abundance of peroxiredoxin 1 (Prdx1), heat shock protein 70.1 (Hsp70.1), growth and differentiation factor 9 (Gdf9), and maternal antigen that embryo requires (Mater) transcripts than the oocytes in the IN VIVO-OPU group, all obtained from the same pool of donor cows. Similar results were seen in the comparisons involving the IN VIVO-OPU and IN VITRO-Abattoir groups (p<0.05).

Conclusion:

In vitro maturation affected the abundance of polyadenylated transcripts in the oocyte cytoplasm when compared to in vivo maturation induced by exogenous hormones in oocytes collected from the same donor pool.

Lipid Identification and Transcriptional Analysis of Controlling Enzymes in Bovine Ovarian Follicle

Ovarian follicle provides a favorable environment for enclosed oocytes, which acquire their competence in supporting embryo development in tight communications with somatic follicular cells and follicular fluid (FF). Although steroidogenesis in theca (TH) and granulosa cells (GC) is largely studied, and the molecular mechanisms of fatty acid (FA) metabolism in cumulus cells (CC) and oocytes are emerging, little data is available regarding lipid metabolism regulation within ovarian follicles. In this study, we investigated lipid composition and the transcriptional regulation of FA metabolism in 3–8 mm ovarian follicles in bovine. Using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (MS), 438 and 439 lipids were identified in FF and follicular cells, respectively. From the MALDI-TOF MS lipid fingerprints of FF, TH, GC, CC, and oocytes, and the MS imaging of ovarian sections, we identified 197 peaks and determined more abundant lipids in each compartment. Transcriptomics revealed lipid metabolism-related genes, which were expressed constitutively or more specifically in TH, GC, CC, or oocytes. Coupled with differential lipid composition, these data suggest that the ovarian follicle contains the metabolic machinery that is potentially capable of metabolizing FA from nutrient uptake, degrading and producing lipoproteins, performing de novo lipogenesis, and accumulating lipid reserves, thus assuring oocyte energy supply, membrane synthesis, and lipid-mediated signaling to maintain follicular homeostasis.

Male fertility status is associated with DNA methylation signatures in sperm and transcriptomic profiles of bovine preimplantation embryos

Background

Infertility in dairy cattle is a concern where reduced fertilization rates and high embryonic loss are contributing factors. Studies of the paternal contribution to reproductive performance are limited. However, recent discoveries have shown that, in addition to DNA, sperm delivers transcription factors and epigenetic components that are required for fertilization and proper embryonic development. Hence, characterization of the paternal contribution at the time of fertilization is warranted. We hypothesized that sire fertility is associated with differences in DNA methylation patterns in sperm and that the embryonic transcriptomic profiles are influenced by the fertility status of the bull. Embryos were generated in vitro by fertilization with either a high or low fertility Holstein bull. Blastocysts derived from each high and low fertility bulls were evaluated for morphology, development, and transcriptomic analysis using RNA-Sequencing. Additionally, DNA methylation signatures of sperm from high and low fertility sires were characterized by performing whole-genome DNA methylation binding domain sequencing.

Results

Embryo morphology and developmental capacity did not differ between embryos generated from either a high or low fertility bull. However, RNA-Sequencing revealed 98 genes to be differentially expressed at a false discovery rate < 1%. A total of 65 genes were upregulated in high fertility bull derived embryos, and 33 genes were upregulated in low fertility derived embryos. Expression of the genes CYCS, EEA1, SLC16A7, MEPCE, and TFB2M was validated in three new pairs of biological replicates of embryos. The role of the differentially expressed gene TFB2M in embryonic development was further assessed through expression knockdown at the zygotic stage, which resulted in decreased development to the blastocyst stage. Assessment of the epigenetic signature of spermatozoa between high and low fertility bulls revealed 76 differentially methylated regions.

Conclusions

Despite similar morphology and development to the blastocyst stage, preimplantation embryos derived from high and low fertility bulls displayed significant transcriptomic differences. The relationship between the paternal contribution and the embryonic transcriptome is unclear, although differences in methylated regions were identified which could influence the reprogramming of the early embryo. Further characterization of paternal factors delivered to the oocyte could lead to the identification of biomarkers for better selection of sires to improve reproductive efficiency.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-017-3673-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Extended in vitro maturation affects gene expression and DNA methylation in bovine oocytes

To mimic post-ovulatory ageing, we have extended the in vitro maturation (IVM) phase to 48 h and examined effects on (i) developmental potential, (ii) expression of a panel of developmentally important genes and (iii) gene-specific epigenetic marks. Results were compared with the 24 h IVM protocol (control) usually employed for bovine oocytes. Cleavage rates and blastocyst yields were significantly reduced in oocytes after extended IVM. No significant differences were observed in the methylation of entire alleles in oocytes for the genes bH19, bSNRPN, bZAR1, bOct4 and bDNMT3A. However, we found differentially methylated CpG sites in the bDNMT3Ls locus in oocytes after extended IVM and in embryos derived from them compared with controls. Moreover, embryos derived from the 48 h matured oocyte group were significantly less methylated at CpG5 and CpG7 compared with the 24 h group. CpG7 was significantly hypermethylated in embryos produced from the control oocytes, but not in oocytes matured for 48 h. Furthermore, methylation for CpG5-CpG8 of bDNMT3Ls was significantly lower in oocytes of the 24 h group compared with embryos derived therefrom, whereas no such difference was found for oocytes and embryos of the in vitro aged group. Expression of most of the selected genes was not affected by duration of IVM. However, transcript abundance for the imprinted gene bIGF2R was significantly reduced in oocytes analyzed after extended IVM compared with control oocytes. Transcript levels for bPRDX1, bDNMT3A and bBCLXL were significantly reduced in 4- to 8-cell embryos derived from in vitro aged oocytes. These results indicate that extended IVM leads to ageing-like alterations and demonstrate that epigenetic mechanisms are critically involved in ageing of bovine oocytes, which warrants further studies into epigenetic mechanisms involved in ageing of female germ cells, including humans.

An integrated approach to bovine oocyte quality: from phenotype to genes

In cattle, early embryonic failure plays a major role in the limitation of reproductive performance and is influenced by genetic effects. Suboptimal oocyte quality, including an inadequate store of maternal factors, is suspected to contribute to this phenomenon. In the present study, 13 Montbeliarde cows were phenotyped on oocyte quality, based on their ability to produce viable embryos after in vitro maturation, fertilisation and culture for 7 days. This discriminated two groups of animals, exhibiting developmental rates below 18.8% or above 40.9% (relative to cleaved embryos). Using microarrays, transcriptomic profiles were compared between oocytes collected in vivo from these two groups of animals. The difference in oocyte development potential was associated with changes in transcripts from 60 genes in immature oocytes and 135 genes in mature oocytes (following Bonferroni 5% correction). Of these, 16 and 32 genes were located in previously identified fertility quantitative trait loci. A subset of differential genes was investigated on distinct samples by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. For SLC25A16, PPP1R14C, ROBO1, AMDHD1 and MEAF6 transcripts, differential expression was confirmed between high and low oocyte potential animals. Further sequencing and searches for polymorphisms will pave the way for implementing their use in genomic selection.

The effect of hormonal estrus induction on maternal effect and apoptosis-related genes expression in porcine cumulus-oocyte complexes

BACKGROUND

The effect of hormonal estrus induction on maternal effect (MATER - maternal antigen that embryo requires, ZAR-1 - zygote arrest 1, and BMP15 - bone morphogenetic protein 15) and apoptosis-related genes expression (BCL-2 and BAX) in porcine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) and selected follicular parameters was investigated in this study.

METHODS

Gilts were divided into three groups: (I) with natural estrus; (II) stimulated with PMSG/hCG; and (III) with PMSG/hCG + PGF2alpha. Analysis of maternal effect and apoptosis-related transcripts expression in COCs, and progesterone synthesis pathway genes expression (P450scc and 3betaHSD) in granulosa cells was performed by qPCR. BMP15 protein expression in follicular fluid (FF) was analyzed by western blot. Oocyte nuclear maturation was assessed by aceto-orcein staining. Progesterone (P4) and estradiol (E2) concentrations in FF and serum were measured by ELISA. Data were analyzed with the one-way ANOVA and Bonferroni post-test or Kruskal-Wallis test and Dunns post-test.

RESULTS

The highest expression of MATER, ZAR-1, and BMP15 genes was found in COCs recovered from gilts treated with PMSG/hCG when compared to PMSG/hCG + PGF2alpha-stimulated or non-stimulated gilts. Hormonal treatment did not affect the BMP15 protein expression in FF, but increased the expression of genes participating in P4 synthesis in granulosa cells. The higher percentage of immature oocytes was found in PMSG/hCG-treated when compared to the non-stimulated gilts. The expression of BCL-2 and BAX mRNA, and BCL-2/BAX mRNA ratio was significantly higher in COCs derived from PMSG/hCG-treated when compared to PMSG/hCG + PGF2alpha-treated or non-stimulated subjects. The level of P4 in serum was similar in animals from all experimental groups, while its concentration in FF was greater in gilts subjected to PMSG/hCG treatment than in PMSG/hCG + PGF2alpha-stimulated and non-stimulated gilts. The concentration of E2 did not differ in the serum or FF between the control group and the hormonally stimulated groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Hormonal induction of estrus affected maternal effect gene transcripts levels in COCs and and oocyte nuclear maturation. The inclusion of PGF2alpha into the stimulation protocol enabled maintaining of physiological concentration of P4 in FF. Additionally, both hormonal treatments seem to be beneficial for apoptosis prevention through increasing BCL-2/BAX transcript ratio.

Reference gene selection for gene expression analysis of oocytes collected from dairy cattle and buffaloes during winter and summer

Oocytes from dairy cattle and buffaloes have severely compromised developmental competence during summer. While analysis of gene expression is a powerful technique for understanding the factors affecting developmental hindrance in oocytes, analysis by real-time reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) relies on the correct normalization by reference genes showing stable expression. Furthermore, several studies have found that genes commonly used as reference standards do not behave as expected depending on cell type and experimental design. Hence, it is recommended to evaluate expression stability of candidate reference genes for a specific experimental condition before employing them as internal controls. In acknowledgment of the importance of seasonal effects on oocyte gene expression, the aim of this study was to evaluate the stability of expression levels of ten well-known reference genes (ACTB, GAPDH, GUSB, HIST1H2AG, HPRT1, PPIA, RPL15, SDHA, TBP and YWHAZ) using oocytes collected from different categories of dairy cattle and buffaloes during winter and summer. A normalization factor was provided for cattle (RPL15, PPIA and GUSB) and buffaloes (YWHAZ, GUSB and GAPDH) based on the expression of the three most stable reference genes in each species. Normalization of non-reference target genes by these reference genes was shown to be considerably different from normalization by less stable reference genes, further highlighting the need for careful selection of internal controls. Therefore, due to the high variability of reference genes among experimental groups, we conclude that data normalized by internal controls can be misleading and should be compared to not normalized data or to data normalized by an external control in order to better interpret the biological relevance of gene expression analysis.

Development competence and relative transcript abundance of oocytes derived from small and medium follicles of prepubertal gilts

The objective of this study was to examine the competence of mature oocytes aspirated from small follicles (SF, <2 mm in diameter) and medium follicles (MF, 3-6 mm) of abattoir-derived prepubertal gilt ovaries. Oocytes were selected by the presence of the first polar body (1pb) after IVM in a chemically defined medium, for sperm penetration, pronuclear formation, cleavage rate, and development to the blastocyst stage. Relative transcript abundance of genes associated with regulation of oocyte maturation (AURKA, AURKB, and MOS), fertilization (ZP3 and ZP4), maternal effect (NALP9 and HSF1), and anti-apoptosis (BCL2) were also examined in oocytes at germinal vesicle (GV) and metaphase-II (MII) stages. In SF, compared with MF, the maturation rate post-IVM was lower (P < 0.05), but there were no differences in sperm penetration rate (78.2% and 68.5% at 6 hours after insemination and 90.8% and 91.9% at 9 hours after insemination, P = 0.51 and P = 0.67, respectively), the percentage of oocytes that formed both female and male pronuclei (27.9% and 25.8% at 6 hours after insemination and 79.4% and 76.1% at 9 hours after insemination), or cleavage rate at 48 hours after insemination (85.9% and 89.7%, respectively, P = 0.46), whereas blastocyst formation rate was lower (P < 0.05) in oocytes from SF versus MF (14.7% and 31.0%). Transcript abundances decreased (P < 0.05) in all genes examined between the GV and MII stages, although only transcript abundance for MOS was lower (P < 0.05) in GV oocytes from SF versus MF. In conclusion, mature oocytes from SF and MF of prepubertal gilts with a visible 1pb had similar fertilizability in vitro and relative transcript abundance of nine genes. However, follicle size affected meiotic competence, early embryonic development to the blastocyst stage, and transcript abundance of the MOS gene.

Absence of cumulus cells during in vitro maturation affects lipid metabolism in bovine oocytes

Cumulus cells (CC) surround the oocyte and are coupled metabolically through regulation of nutrient intake. CC removal before in vitro maturation (IVM) decreases bovine oocyte developmental competence without affecting nuclear meiotic maturation. The objective was to investigate the influence of CC on oocyte cytoplasmic maturation in relation to energy metabolism. IVM with either cumulus-enclosed (CEO) or -denuded (DO) oocytes was performed in serum-free metabolically optimized medium. Transmission electron microscopy revealed different distribution of membrane-bound vesicles and lipid droplets between metaphase II DO and CEO. By Nile Red staining, a significant reduction in total lipid level was evidenced in DO. Global transcriptomic analysis revealed differential expression of genes regulating energy metabolism, transcription, and translation between CEO and DO. By Western blot, fatty acid synthase (FAS) and hormone-sensitive phospholipase (HSL) proteins were detected in oocytes and in CC, indicating a local lipogenesis and lypolysis. FAS protein was significantly less abundant in DO that in CEO and more highly expressed in CC than in the oocytes. On the contrary, HSL protein was more abundant in oocytes than in CC. In addition, active Ser⁵⁶³-phosphorylated HSL was detected in the oocytes only after IVM, and its level was similar in CEO and DO. In conclusion, absence of CC during IVM affected lipid metabolism in the oocyte and led to suboptimal cytoplasmic maturation. Thus, CC may influence the oocyte by orienting the consumption of nutritive storage via regulation of local fatty acid synthesis and lipolysis to provide energy for maturation.

The effect of ovary storage and in vitro maturation on mRNA levels in bovine oocytes; a possible impact of maternal ATP1A1 on blastocyst development in slaughterhouse-derived oocytes

Since BSE testing of slaughtered cattle is obligatory in Japan, storage of ovaries at 15-20 C overnight in phosphate buffered saline has become a routine protocol in in vitro production (IVP) of cattle embryos. Ovary storage is known to reduce developmental competence of oocytes; however, its effects on oocyte gene expression have not been clarified yet. This study compared oocytes collected from stored slaughterhouse-derived ovaries with those collected by Ovum Pick-Up (OPU) in terms of the expression of 20 selected genes to determine if ovary storage affects cellular processes at the molecular level. Expression of mRNA in oocytes was assayed before and after in vitro maturation (IVM) by real-time quantitative PCR. Maternal mRNA levels of genes were investigated in 2-cell stage embryos obtained from slaughterhouse oocytes to assess their roles for blastocyst formation. In immature OPU oocytes, genes related to metabolism (GAPDH), transporters (GLUT8, ATP1A1) and stress resistance protein (HSP70) showed significantly higher expression compared with oocytes derived from stored ovaries. During IVM, the expression of GDF9, GLUT8, CTNNB1 and PMSB1 was significantly decreased irrespective of oocyte source. Two-cell stage embryos cleaving at 22-25 h after in vitro fertilization (IVF) showed a significantly higher blastocyst formation rate and ATP1A1 gene expression level compared with those cleaving at 27-30 h after IVF. Our results reveal that storage of ovaries alters mRNA levels in oocytes. Correlation of Na/K ATPase ATP1A1 expression in IVP embryos at the 2-cell and 8-cell stages with their developmental ability to the blastocyst stage may suggest the importance of maternal mRNA of this gene during blastulation in embryos derived from slaughterhouse oocytes.

Alterations in the transcriptome of porcine oocytes derived from prepubertal and cyclic females is associated with developmental potential

The developmental competence of oocytes is progressively attained as females approach puberty. The poor quality of prepubertally derived oocytes suggests that essential processes during cytoplasmic maturation have not been completed. The objective of this experiment was to identify genes in oocytes that are associated with good (cyclic females) and poor (prepubertal females) developmental competence. Development to the blastocyst stage in vitro was significantly decreased in oocytes derived from prepubertal females compared with cyclic females (5.26 and 12.86%, respectively). Approximately 10% of the oocyte transcriptome was differentially expressed between in vitro-matured oocytes derived from cyclic and prepubertal females (P < 0.05); 58% of differentially expressed genes had increased transcript abundance in oocytes derived from cyclic females. Genes involved in the metabolism and regulation of biological processes had increased transcript abundance in oocytes derived from cyclic females, whereas genes involved in translation were increased in prepubertally derived oocytes. Quantitative PCR confirmed differential expression (P < 0.05) for 6 out of 11 selected genes [DPYD (dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase), RDH11 (retinol dehydrogenase 11), SFRS4 (serine/arginine-rich splicing factor 4), SFRS7 (serine/arginine-rich splicing factor 7), TL4 (transcribed loci 4), and TOP2B (topoisomerase II β)] that were differentially expressed with greater than a 2-fold change by microarray, although 3 of these genes, DPYD, TL4, and TOP2B, were in opposing directions by the 2 methods. In conclusion, expression of multiple genes involved in metabolism and translation was significantly altered in oocytes from prepubertal females compared with cyclic females, which was associated with reduced in vitro development to the blastocyst stage. These genes may represent important cellular mechanisms that regulate oocyte quality.

Expression of maternal transcripts during bovine oocyte in vitro maturation is affected by donor age

The primary objective of this study was to compare expression of maternal transcripts in bovine oocyte populations with differential developmental competence: oocytes from prepubertal and pubertal animals; and oocytes from small (3-4 mm) and large (6-10 mm) follicles from pubertal animals. All transcripts were examined in oocytes prior to and after in vitro maturation (IVM). Genes were selected based on their known maternal effect in mouse (ZAR1, STELLA, HSF1, MATER/NLRP5 and its paralogue NLRP9), or their identification as markers of oocyte maturation, either involved in redox metabolism (PRDX1, PRDX2) or meiotic progression (AURKA). Total or polyadenylated forms of the transcripts were followed by reverse transcription coupled to real-time PCR. Six polyadenylated transcripts were found significantly reduced after maturation irrespective of donor age or follicle diameter (p<0.05). Within these six polyadenylated transcripts, ZAR1, NLRP9, HSF1, PRDX1 and PRDX2 were significantly reduced in oocytes from prepubertal animals compared to adult animals (p<0.05). A younger age was also associated with lower abundance (total form) of PRDX2/PRDX1 irrespective of maturation. Total HSF1, PRDX1 and polyadenylated NLRP9 showed a tendency (p values from 0.053 to 0.08) for a higher detection in oocytes from small follicles, thus encouraging further investigation of the follicle diameter model. However, at the present time, follicle size did not significantly affect expression of transcripts examined. In conclusion, this study demonstrates differences in the maternal store of RNA and its regulation during IVM which is dependent on donor age.

Sequential analysis of global gene expression profiles in immature and in vitro matured bovine oocytes: potential molecular markers of oocyte maturation

Background

Without intensive selection, the majority of bovine oocytes submitted to in vitro embryo production (IVP) fail to develop to the blastocyst stage. This is attributed partly to their maturation status and competences. Using the Affymetrix GeneChip Bovine Genome Array, global mRNA expression analysis of immature (GV) and in vitro matured (IVM) bovine oocytes was carried out to characterize the transcriptome of bovine oocytes and then use a variety of approaches to determine whether the observed transcriptional changes during IVM was real or an artifact of the techniques used during analysis.

Results

8489 transcripts were detected across the two oocyte groups, of which ~25.0% (2117 transcripts) were differentially expressed (p < 0.001); corresponding to 589 over-expressed and 1528 under-expressed transcripts in the IVM oocytes compared to their immature counterparts. Over expression of transcripts by IVM oocytes is particularly interesting, therefore, a variety of approaches were employed to determine whether the observed transcriptional changes during IVM were real or an artifact of the techniques used during analysis, including the analysis of transcript abundance in oocytes in vitro matured in the presence of α-amanitin. Subsets of the differentially expressed genes were also validated by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and the gene expression data was classified according to gene ontology and pathway enrichment. Numerous cell cycle linked (CDC2, CDK5, CDK8, HSPA2, MAPK14, TXNL4B), molecular transport (STX5, STX17, SEC22A, SEC22B), and differentiation (NACA) related genes were found to be among the several over-expressed transcripts in GV oocytes compared to the matured counterparts, while ANXA1, PLAU, STC1and LUM were among the over-expressed genes after oocyte maturation.

Conclusion

Using sequential experiments, we have shown and confirmed transcriptional changes during oocyte maturation. This dataset provides a unique reference resource for studies concerned with the molecular mechanisms controlling oocyte meiotic maturation in cattle, addresses the existing conflicting issue of transcription during meiotic maturation and contributes to the global goal of improving assisted reproductive technology.

Transferase activity function and system development process are critical in cattle embryo development

Microarray gene expression experiments often consider specific developmental stages, tissue sources, or reproductive technologies. This focus hinders the understanding of the cattle embryo transcriptome. To address this, four microarray experiments encompassing three developmental stages (7, 25, 280 days), two tissue sources (embryonic or extra-embryonic), and two reproductive technologies (artificial insemination or AI and somatic cell nuclear transfer or NT) were combined using two sets of meta-analyses. The first set of meta-analyses uncovered 434 genes differentially expressed between AI and NT (regardless of stage or source) that were not detected by the individual-experiment analyses. The molecular function of transferase activity was enriched among these genes that included ECE2, SLC22A1, and a gene similar to CAMK2D. Gene POLG2 was over-expressed in AI versus NT 7-day embryos and was under-expressed in AI versus NT 25-day embryos. Gene HAND2 was over-expressed in AI versus NT extra-embryonic samples at 280 days yet under-expressed in AI versus NT embryonic samples at 7 days. The second set of meta-analyses uncovered enrichment of system, organ, and anatomical structure development among the genes differentially expressed between 7- and 25-day embryos from either reproductive technology. Genes PRDX1and SLC16A1 were over-expressed in 7- versus 25-day AI embryos and under-expressed in 7- versus 25-day NT embryos. Changes in stage were associated with high number of differentially expressed genes, followed by technology and source. Genes with transferase activity may hold a clue to the differences in efficiency between reproductive technologies.