Prevalence of imposter syndrome and its association with depression, stress, and anxiety among nursing students: a multi-center cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

To examine the prevalence of imposter syndrome among nursing students and its association with depression, stress, and anxiety.

METHODS

A multi-center cross-sectional survey was conducted with 1572 nursing students randomly selected from three universities across Egypt. The study was conducted over 3 months, from the beginning of January to the end of March, during the academic year 2023/2024. Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale and Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 were used for data collection.

RESULTS

A significant proportion of nursing students experience moderate to highly severe levels of depression, anxiety, and stress. Around a quarter of students had moderate depression, 22.6% had moderate anxiety, and 14.9% had severe anxiety. Additionally, 13.3% of participants experienced severe stress, with only 3.8% experiencing highly severe stress. The study also found that 46.3% of students experienced moderate imposter syndrome, with 33% having frequent imposter levels and 6.2% scoring intense imposter on the scale. Furthermore, imposter syndrome was positively correlated with depression, anxiety, and stress, and the total score of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (r = 0.639, p < 0.001). The stepwise linear regression analysis explained that 45.0% of the variance in students' depression, anxiety, and stress was due to imposter syndrome and other sociodemographic covariates.

CONCLUSION

This study highlighted the relationship between imposter syndrome, depression, anxiety, and stress among nursing students. Specifically, female students in higher academic years, with lower grade point averages, living in urban areas, with lower family incomes, and not participating in hobbies are more prone to depression, anxiety, and stress.

NURSING IMPLICATIONS

These findings underscore the need for a holistic approach to managing the complex nature of mental health among nursing students. Incorporating education and resources on self-care and stress management techniques into nursing training programs is imperative for addressing the implications of imposter syndrome in nursing practice. Equipping nursing students with these essential skills can enhance their resilience, foster a healthier work environment, and ultimately improve patient care outcomes.

Impostor Phenomenon and Advanced Practice Registered Nurse Faculty

BACKGROUND

Impostor phenomenon (IP), or syndrome, is a behavioral health phenomenon where individuals discount personal accomplishments, success, and aptitude. It negatively affects high-functioning individuals in nursing and other health care professions.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate IP in advanced practice registered nurse (APRN) faculty.

METHODS

This descriptive correlational study included the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS).

RESULTS

The sample included 478 APRN faculty members representing 50 states and Washington DC. The majority (n = 324) of CIPS scores were moderate (n = 198) or frequent (n = 133), indicating that scores may be clinically relevant. Moderate levels were associated with an increased likelihood of experiencing negative sequelae, including decreased job satisfaction and increased burnout. Comparing CIPS scores yielded no statistically significant differences between APRN roles. Significant predictors included age, years of teaching, and rank of associate professor.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings can inform strategies to improve retention, recruitment, and job satisfaction.

Impostor Phenomenon and Grit as Predictors of Job Satisfaction in Female Pharmacy Faculty

INTRODUCTION

Impostor phenomenon (IP), grit, and other factors impact job satisfaction for faculty, particularly female faculty.

METHODS

The Impostor Phenomenon Research Collaborative (IPRC) evaluated IP, grit, and job satisfaction in pharmacy faculty. A cross-sectional study was conducted with a convenience sample of faculty using a survey, which included demographic questions and validated instruments: Clance Impostor Phenomenon (CIPS), Short GRIT Scale, and Overall Job Satisfaction Questionnaire. Differences between groups, relationships, and prediction were evaluated using independent t-tests, ANOVA, Pearson correlation, and regression analyses.

RESULTS

A total of 436 participants completed the survey; 380 self-identified as pharmacy faculty. Two hundred and one (54%) reported intense or frequent feelings of IP. The mean CIPS score was above 60, indicating a risk of negative outcomes related to IP. There were no differences in the prevalence of IP or job satisfaction levels when female and male faculty were compared. Female faculty had higher GRIT-S scores. Faculty reporting more IP had lower grit and lower job satisfaction. Job satisfaction in faculty was predicted by IP and grit; however, grit did not provide a unique prediction when combined with IP for male faculty.

CONCLUSION

IP was not more prevalent in female faculty. Female faculty were grittier than male faculty. Higher grit was associated with less IP and higher job satisfaction. IP and grit predicted job satisfaction for female and male pharmacy faculty. Our findings suggest that improving grit may help mitigate IP and impact job satisfaction. Further research on evidence-based IP interventions is needed.

Development, Factor Structure, and Psychometric Validation of the Impostor Phenomenon Assessment: A Novel Assessment of Impostor Phenomenon

Despite growing attention surrounding impostor phenomenon (also known as "imposter syndrome"), recent reviews have suggested that current measures may be inadequate in capturing the complex and multifaceted nature of this construct. The objective of the current studies was to clarify the theoretical conceptualization of impostor phenomenon based on experiences in an achievement-oriented setting. We conducted a review of the literature and developed an item pool for a novel impostor phenomenon assessment (IPA) (Study 1). Exploratory factor analyses (Study 1) and confirmatory factor analyses (Study 2) assessed this initial item pool to determine the factor structure and initial psychometric properties of the preliminary IPA (Studies 2 and 3). Our findings offer preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of the IPA as a novel measure of impostor phenomenon.

Exploring the Relationship Between Imposter Phenomenon and Myers-Briggs Personality Types in Pharmacy Education

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between imposter phenomenon (IP) and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality types in pharmacy students.

METHODS

This was a retrospective, observational study of doctor of pharmacy students who had previously completed MBTI and Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale (CIPS) assessments. CIPS scores and categories were compared between the 4 MBTI personality type dichotomies using independent samples t tests and chi-square.

RESULTS

Mean CIPS score for included pharmacy students (N = 668) was 62.52 (SD 14.82). Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale scores were significantly higher in students with MBTI of introversion (mean 64.14, SD 14.27), intuition (mean 63.80, SD 15.78), and perceiving (mean 64.38, SD 15.55) as compared to their dichotomous counterparts. No significant difference in mean CIPS scores was found within the thinking/feeling dichotomy. When analyzing IP risk associated with the various MBTI personality dichotomies, introverts were at a 1.8 times greater risk of high/severe IP than extroverts. Additionally, students with perceiving personality types were at a 1.4 times greater risk of high/severe IP than those with judging personality types.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that pharmacy students with introversion, intuitive, and perceptive personality types exhibit higher CIPS scores, and those with introversion or perceptive personality types are at risk for high/severe IP. Given the common MBTI types and a high degree of IP in pharmacy students, our findings underlie the need for open, targeted discussions about IP and proactively incorporating strategies and resources within a curriculum to support students in normalizing and easing anxiety.

Maternal and Paternal Authoritarian Parenting and Adolescents' Impostor Feelings: The Mediating Role of Parental Psychological Control and the Moderating Role of Child's Gender

INTRODUCTION

Recent systematic reviews about the impostor phenomenon unveil a severe shortage of research data on adolescents. The present study aimed at reducing this gap in the literature by investigating the association between maternal and paternal authoritarian parenting and impostor feelings among adolescents, while testing the mediating role played by parental psychological control and the moderating role of the child's gender in this context.

METHODS

Three hundred and eight adolescents took part in an online survey, in which they reported anonymously on their impostor feelings and their parents' parenting styles via several valid psychological questionnaires. The sample consisted of 143 boys and 165 girls, whose age ranged from 12 to 17 (M = 14.67, SD = 1.64).

RESULTS

Of the sample's participants, over 35% reported frequent to intense impostor feelings, with girls scoring significantly higher than boys on this scale. In general, the maternal and paternal parenting variables explained 15.2% and 13.3% (respectively) of the variance in the adolescents' impostor scores. Parental psychological control fully mediated (for fathers) and partially mediated (for mothers) the association between parental authoritarian parenting and the adolescents' impostor feelings. The child's gender moderated solely the maternal direct effect of authoritarian parenting on impostor feelings (this association was significant for boys alone), but not the mediating effect via psychological control.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study introduces a specific explanation for the possible mechanism describing the early emergence of impostor feelings in adolescents based on parenting styles and behaviors.

Medical Students and the Impostor Phenomenon: A Coexistence Precipitated and Perpetuated by the Educational Environment?

People who experience the impostor phenomenon have intense thoughts of fraudulence regarding their intellect or professional activities. This perception of illegitimacy leads sufferers to believe that success in their lives is attributable to some form of error. Despite the phenomenon having been thoroughly researched in a plethora of professional and educational environments, there remains a relative lack of insight into the impostor phenomenon amongst medical students. This research aimed to better understand the relationship between medical students and the impostor phenomenon, and subsequently to investigate whether their coexistence is precipitated and perpetuated by the educational environment. A cross-sectional study of medical students was conducted using a pragmatist approach, integrating quantitative and qualitative data, via a questionnaire, focus groups and interviews. The main quantitative measure used was the validated Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS), where higher scores indicate more marked impostor experiences. A total of 191 questionnaire responses were received, and 19 students attended a focus group or interview. The average CIPS score for the cohort was 65.81 ± 13.72, indicating that the average student had "frequent" impostor experiences. Of note, 65.4% of students were classed as having "clinically significant" impostor experiences and females scored 9.15 points higher than males on average (p < 0.0001). Examination rankings were frequently cited as a major contributing factor to students' impostor feelings, and data revealed an increase of 1.12 points per decile that a student drops down the rankings (p < 0.05). Students' quotes were used extensively to underpin the quantitative data presented and offer an authentic insight into their experiences. This study provides new insights and contributes to our understanding of the impostor phenomenon amongst medical students, and eight recommendations for practice are presented, which are intended to provide medical schools with opportunities for pedagogical innovation.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40670-022-01675-x.

Understanding the impostor phenomenon in graduate nursing students

Intuitively, nurse educators know that graduate students in both master's and doctoral programs question their ability to succeed. The impostor phenomenon (IP) is an internalized sense of inadequacy and fear of being seen as a fraud in the presence of external indicators of authentic achievement, and experienced by high achieving, successful individuals. Fifty-three percent (49/93) of graduate students completed the CIPS survey, and 11 master's (regular streams & nurse practitioner) and two doctoral students participated in focus group interviews. The quantitative results showed that 88 % of participants experienced moderate to intense impostor phenomenon. Two themes emerged in the qualitative analysis: (i) experiencing the imposter phenomenon and (ii) managing feeling like an impostor. Descriptions of IP were similar across the three groups of participants. This research provides a foundational understanding of how IP is experienced by graduate nursing students.

Predicting stress and mental wellbeing among doctoral researchers

BACKGROUND

Although mental health in higher education is increasingly recognised as a public health issue, postgraduate research students are often overlooked. Recent studies indicate a high prevalence of mental distress in this population.

AIMS

This study assesses the experience of doctoral researchers and identifies factors influencing mental wellbeing and perceived stress.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study examined how key demographic, individual and contextual factors related to stress and mental wellbeing in a sample of 431 doctoral researchers in the United Kingdom.

RESULTS

Respondents gave positive reports about their supervisory relationship and identified feeling confidently prepared for their work. Family support, good general health, sleep and low levels of self-depreciation predicted stronger mental wellbeing and lower levels of stress. Students who were confident about their future career and felt well prepared for their studies were less stressed and those who were achievement orientated had better mental wellbeing.

CONCLUSIONS

Focused attention on exploring career options and building confidence may help reduce stress among doctoral researchers. Taking steps to tackle the imposter phenomenon may help further. These could include addressing fear of failure, improving confidence in research ability and clarifying the role of doctoral researchers within the wider academic community.

Faculty Experiences of the Impostor Phenomenon in STEM Fields

Successful people experiencing impostor phenomenon consider themselves less competent and less worthy of their positions or achievements. They attribute their success to luck, deceit, fraudulence, and others being kind to them instead of their own competence. Prior research has focused primarily on students in higher education; faculty experiences of impostor phenomenon in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields are not well understood. The research question guiding this inquiry was: "What kind of academic events or activities could contribute to faculty experiences of impostor phenomenon in STEM?" Using a qualitative analysis of 56 interviews, this U.S.-based study examined occurrences and experiences among faculty who self-identified as experiencing impostor phenomenon. A prior survey from the same participants revealed that they were predominantly White and female, experiencing moderate, high, or intense impostor phenomenon. Thematic interview analysis revealed that impostor phenomenon could be related to the following: 1) peer comparison, 2) faculty evaluation, 3) public recognition, 4) the anticipatory fear of not knowing, and 5) a perceived lack of competency. A comparison with findings from the larger study revealed that there are commonalities among faculty, PhD student, and postdoctorate experiences of impostor phenomenon in STEM. This necessitates professional development opportunities that could address self-limiting beliefs across the academic pipeline.

The facets of an impostor – development and validation of the impostor-profile (IPP31) for measuring impostor phenomenon

The Impostor Phenomenon (IP) is a characteristic, which is composed of cognitions of inauthenticity, in conjunction with fear of failure, as well as fear of being exposed as a fraud. The IP was first described by Clance (1985), who also developed an accompanying questionnaire. However, this questionnaire left room for optimization (item content, pysychometric properties, and the representing IP as a multidimensional construct). Therefore, we developed an item pool of 450 new items based on the theoretical foundation. The core element characteristics are measured using the theoretically derived scales: Competence Doubt, Working Style, Alienation, Other-Self Divergence, Frugality and Need for Sympathy. Based on a German sample (N = 771, 51% female), aged 18 to 70 years, exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis resulted in a selection of 31 items. The six scales show satisfactory internal consistencies between .69 and .92. Initial construct validity showed positive correlations with convergent (Neuroticism) and discriminant measures (Self-Esteem). The Impostor-Profile (IPP31) is a theoretically founded multidimensional german questionnaire that can be applied in research and practice.

Fostering Interdisciplinary Boundary Spanning in Health Communication: A Call for a Paradigm Shift

Scholarship in the field of health communication is broad, with interdisciplinary contributions from researchers trained in a variety of fields including communication, nursing, medicine, pharmacy, public health, and social work. In this paper, we explore the role of "health communication boundary spanners" (HCBS), individuals whose scholarly work and academic appointment reflect dual citizenship in both the communication discipline and the health professions or public health. Using a process of critical reflective inquiry, we elucidate opportunities and challenges associated with HCBS across the spectrum of health communication in order to provide guidance for individuals pursuing boundary spanning roles and those who supervise and mentor them. This dual citizen role suggests that HCBS have unique skills, identities, perspectives, and practices that contribute new ways of being and knowing that transcend traditional disciplinary boundaries. The health communication field is evolving in response to the need to address significant healthcare and policy problems. No one discipline has the ability to single-handedly fix our current healthcare systems. Narrative data from this study illustrate the importance of seeing HCBS work beyond simply being informed by disciplinary knowledge. Rather, we suggest that adapting ways of knowing and definitions of expertise is an integral part of the solution to solving persistent health problems.

Exploring reasons for MD-PhD trainees' experiences of impostor phenomenon

BACKGROUND

Acceptance into U.S. MD-PhD dual-degree programs is highly competitive, and the lengthy training program requires transitioning between multiple phases (pre-clinical-, PhD-research-, and clinical-training phases), which can be stressful. Challenges faced during MD-PhD training could exacerbate self-doubt and anxiety. Impostor phenomenon is the experience of feeling like a fraud, with some high-achieving, competent individuals attributing their successes to luck or other factors rather than their own ability and hard work. To our knowledge, impostor phenomenon among MD-PhD trainees has not been described. This study examined impostor phenomenon experiences during MD-PhD training and reasons trainees attributed to these feelings.

METHODS

Individuals in science and medicine fields participated in an online survey that included the 20-item Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS); higher scores (range 20-100) indicate more frequent impostor phenomenon. Some respondents who reported experiencing impostor phenomenon also voluntarily completed a semi-structured interview, sharing experiences during training that contributed to feelings of impostor phenomenon. Interview transcripts were coded and analysed using the constant comparative method and analytic induction to identify themes.

RESULTS

Of 959 survey respondents (students and professionals in science and medicine), 13 MD-PhD students and residents completed the survey, nine of whom (five male, four female; four white, five other race-ethnicity) also completed an interview. These participants experienced moderate-to-intense scores on the CIPS (range: 46-96). Four themes emerged from the interview narratives that described participants' experiences of IP: professional identity formation, fear of evaluation, minority status, and, program-transition experiences. All reported struggling to develop a physician-scientist identity and lacking a sense of belonging in medicine or research.

CONCLUSIONS

Impostor experiences that MD-PhD participants attributed to bias and micro-aggressions in social interactions with peers, faculty, and patients challenged their professional identity formation as physician-scientists. It is important to further examine how MD-PhD-program structures, cultures, and social interactions can lead to feelings of alienation and experiences of impostor phenomenon, particularly for students from diverse and underrepresented populations in medicine.

Gender disparity in German neurosurgery

OBJECTIVE

Despite the rising number of women in higher education and leadership positions, the proportional rise of female neurosurgeons still lags behind these fields. This study evaluates the gender distribution in German neurosurgical departments across all career levels, and is aimed at heightening the awareness of gender disparity and the need for improving gender equality and its related opportunities.

METHODS

Data on gender distribution across all professional levels in German neurosurgical departments were obtained from departmental websites as well as by email and telephone request. Results were additionally analyzed in reference to hospital ownership type of the neurosurgical departments.

RESULTS

A total of 140 German neurosurgical departments employing 2324 neurosurgeons were evaluated. The analysis revealed a clear preponderance of men in leadership positions. Only 9 (6.3%) of 143 department heads were women, and there were only 1 (2.4%), 17 (14.5%), and 4 (12.5%) women among 42 vice-directors, 117 chief senior physicians, and 32 managing senior physicians, respectively. Senior physicians not holding a leadership position were female in 23.1%, whereas board-certified neurosurgeons not holding a senior physician position and residents were female in 33.6% and 35.0%, respectively. Of note, the highest proportion of female department heads (15.6%) was found in private hospitals.

CONCLUSIONS

The number of women in leadership positions in German neurosurgical departments is dramatically low, and with increasing leadership status gender disparity increases. Mentorship, recruitment, the perception of benefits offered by diversity and programs facilitating gender equality, job sharing, parental leave policies, and onsite childcare programs are needed to turn German neurosurgical departments into modern medical departments reflecting the gender profile of the general patient population.

Measuring impostor phenomenon in healthcare simulation educators: a validation of the clance impostor phenomenon scale and leary impostorism scale

BACKGROUND

Impostor phenomenon is a term used to describe feelings of intellectual and professional fraudulence. The Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale and the Leary Impostorism Scale are two self-report measures used to determine whether an individual experiences impostor phenomenon. This study examined the psychometric properties of both measures in healthcare simulation educators.

METHODS

The study sample comprised 148 educators, 114 (77%) females, 34 (23%) males, who completed an online version of each instrument. Exploratory factor analysis was used to examine the factor structure of the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale and the Leary Impostorism Scale.

RESULTS

Exploratory factor analysis revealed that for both instruments a one-factor solution best fit the data, suggesting all items in both measures fit onto a single theoretical construct. Both instruments demonstrated high internal reliability, with the Cronbach's alpha for the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale being α = .96 and the Leary Impostorism Scale α = .95.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that impostor phenomenon as measured by the Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale and the Leary Impostorism Scale is a unidimensional construct among healthcare simulation educators. With a growing interest in impostor phenomenon, the present findings will assist researchers to evaluate the phenomenon in healthcare settings.

A Cultural Impostor? Native American Experiences of Impostor Phenomenon in STEM

Using a framework of colonization in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), this U.S.-based study examined how seven Native American PhD students/postdoctoral scholars experienced impostor phenomenon. Participants were identified/contacted at a national conference on minorities in STEM through purposeful sampling. Surveys computed impostor phenomenon scores on a validated scale, while interviews documented how identity and culture contributed to impostor phenomenon in academia. Using a phenomenological approach, interviews were analyzed inductively using a constant comparative method. Surveys scores indicated high to intense impostor phenomenon. Interviews with the same participants further identified the following aspects of impostor phenomenon in relation to their minoritized identity: cultural differences and lack of understanding of Indigenous culture, lack of critical mass and fear of standing out, academic environment, family background and upbringing, and looks and diversity status. Developing a diverse and culturally competent STEM workforce requires a deeper understanding of what deters Native American individuals from pursuing a STEM career. They have the lowest college enrollment and retention rates compared with any race in the United States and could be vulnerable to racial bias and discrimination. Understanding impostor phenomenon through culturally relevant experiences would be crucial to broaden participation in STEM careers.

You Are Not an Impostor: The Registered Dietitian Nutritionist and Impostor Phenomenon

Impostor phenomenon (IP) interferes with the desire for taking advantage of career opportunities and pursuing career advancement. There is robust literature describing the effects of IP in other health care professions, yet an absence of research exists on IP within the nutrition and dietetics profession. This perspective will explore why nutrition and dietetics professionals may experience IP, specify what might be done to mitigate the negative effects of IP, and describe future research directions. Impostorism is an understudied phenomenon that could have significant implications for the profession of nutrition and dietetics on an individual and systemic level.

Tenure Expectations and Career Aspirations Among Female Assistant Professors in STEM

This study used social cognitive career theory to predict the career aspirations and tenure expectations of untenured female science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) assistant professors. We hypothesized that contextual variables (perceived career barriers and institutional support for work–life balance) would directly predict career aspirations and tenure expectations. We also expected that these contextual variables would be indirectly related to career aspirations and tenure expectations through our self-efficacy variables (faculty task-specific self-efficacy and impostor beliefs). Data were collected from 214 untenured female faculty in STEM departments. Path analyses indicated that the hypothesized model was a good fit for the data. Institutional support for work–life balance produced direct and indirect pathways to career aspirations through faculty task-specific self-efficacy and an indirect pathway to tenure expectations through impostor beliefs, whereas perceived career barriers produced a direct pathway to career aspirations. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Mentor and peer support for early career researchers sharing research with academia and beyond

There is a growing expectation that doctoral candidates and early career academics publish research outputs such as journal articles and conference papers, and that they share their findings with key stakeholders beyond academia. However, it is not known if these expectations are being coupled with support from mentors and peers within institutions. Through interviews with recent PhD graduates working as early career researchers in Australia and Japan, this paper investigates if mentor and peer support for producing both academic and translational outputs was forthcoming during their doctoral candidature and beyond. It also investigates kinds of supports provided in doctoral candidature and early career. Thirty early career researchers in Australia and Japan took part in this qualitative study involving in-depth semi-structured interviews with a purposive sample of respondents. Researchers made translation support available for Japanese respondents so that those with limited English could take part. Findings suggest that mentor and peer support were not universal, and some respondents did not have a mentor or significant peer influence supporting their production of academic or translational research outputs. Support for sharing research with audiences beyond academia could be limited, with production of outputs for academic audiences consistently a greater focus of support. There were no mentoring supports for translational outputs that had salience across Australia and Japan within the sample. While limited attention has been given to the role that peer influence may play in supporting research output production of early career researchers the more even power relationship between peers as opposed to the peer-/mentor dyad can allow unique supports to flourish. Where institutions expect growing and diverse research output production by doctoral candidates and early career researchers, they should also ensure that support is provided through facilitating mentoring and peer relationships.

Association between Characteristics of Impostor Phenomenon in Medical Students and Step 1 Performance

Impostor phenomenon (IP) is a widely recognized experience in which highly performing individuals do not internalize success. Self-doubt toward one's ability or intelligence is unexpectedly common. Prior research has associated IP with medical student perceptions, burnout, and demographic characteristics. However, understanding how student IP experiences are related to actual academic achievement could help medical schools better support student performance and resilience. Hypotheses: The purpose of this research was to examine whether there is a relationship between medical students' USMLE Step 1 scores and experiences of IP. Because medical students receive frequent, objective feedback on exam performance, we hypothesized that students with lower Step 1 scores would experience higher levels of IP. Methods: In 2019, all M1-M4 students at the University of Louisville were invited to complete Clance's (1985) Impostor Phenomenon Scale (CIPS), a previously validated, 20-item, Likert-style scoring instrument designed to reflect respondents' IP experience. We categorized subjects into one of four levels based on CIPS scoring guidelines. For students who had completed Step 1 at the time of the survey, we conducted a Welch's ANOVA test to identify relationships between a student's level of experienced IP and Step 1 scores. We also completed an item analysis comparing individual CIPS item responses with Step 1 performance. Results: Per the CIPS scoring guidelines, we categorized the 233 respondents as experiencing few (10.3%), moderate (47.6%), frequent (31.8%), or intense (10.3%) characteristics of IP. Nearly 90% of our sample experienced at least moderate levels of IP, with over 40% experiencing frequent or intense IP. There were no statistically significant differences among CIPS groups and mean Step 1 scores [F (3, 59.8) = 1.81, p = 0.155], and total/inter-quartile Step 1 score ranges broadly overlapped among all four IP experience levels. Within-item response patterns among high and low-scoring students also varied across individual CIPS items. Conclusions: The association between IP experience and Step 1 performance was nonlinear in our cross-sectional sample: the group having the most intense IP experiences did not have the lowest score rank on Step 1, nor did the group with the fewest IP characteristics make up our highest performing group. This, along with the broad dispersion of scores within each of the four IP levels, suggests that students' internalization of achievement and feelings of IP are not consistently aligned with their actual performance on this assessment. Response variation on individual CIPS items suggest that underlying factors may drive variation in IP and performance. These results highlight the need for additional work to identify the constructs of IP that influence medical students specifically so that medical education stakeholders may better understand IP's impact on other facets of medical school and implement the resources necessary to support individuals who experience IP.

The Road to Becoming a Psychologist: Indicators of Success and Hardship during the University Years

In order to become a full-fledged psychologist, one must undertake a long, demanding, and quite difficult journey in academia. The academic journey holds a promise of delivering knowledge, interesting theories, and strategies on helping those who need psychological assessment and/or treatment. However, the constant expectation of keeping up with the material, of succeeding in tests and exams, and of preparing to proceed to the next educational level can be daunting and exhausting. In line with the topic of this special issue, this paper addresses factors contributing to academic success at the undergraduate, graduate, and post-graduate levels of psychology. Utilizing the available literature on the Big Five personality classification scheme, high conscientiousness was found to be the most consistent predictor of success, although curiously, this relationship was only found to be reliable at the undergraduate level. Less robust findings included high agreeableness and low neuroticism as predictors of general academic success in all tertiary levels of education. The importance of mentorship figures in psychology, and a highlight of its lack of widespread implementation at the undergraduate level, are also addressed. Additionally, we discuss the negative implications of the impostor phenomenon and of loneliness, which students at all levels may experience as common barriers to scholastic success in psychology. Following a discussion of each factor as outlined above, there is a brief literature review regarding ways that its constraining effects may be limited or its positive effects possibly enhanced.

Feeling Like an Imposter: The Effect of Perceived Classroom Competition on the Daily Psychological Experiences of First-Generation College Students

Many college students intend to pursue science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) careers but quickly abandon these goals when confronted with notoriously competitive STEM courses that often pit students against each other. This emphasis on interpersonal competition could be especially detrimental for first-generation (FG) college students, an underrepresented group in STEM fields which more strongly values communality and collaboration relative to their continuing-generation peers. Thus, FG students may experience more imposter feelings in STEM courses perceived as having a competitive culture. A longitudinal study (with 818 students and 2,638 experience-sampling observations) found that perceived classroom competition was associated with greater daily in-class imposter feelings among all students—but especially among FG students. Imposter feelings in turn predicted students’ end-of-term course engagement, attendance, dropout intentions, and course grades. Classroom competition and the imposter feelings it engenders may be an overlooked barrier for promoting the engagement, performance, and retention of FG students in STEM.

Tackling the imposter phenomenon to advance women in neurology

Recent literature documents that women comprise an increasing proportion of the neurology workforce but still lag behind male counterparts in publications and promotion. There are many reasons for gender disparities in neurology including family responsibilities, different career goals, lack of mentorship, cultural stereotypes, lack of institutional funding, biases, and professional isolation. Another contributing factor receiving relatively little recognition is the imposter phenomenon. This review highlights recent literature on gender differences in neurology, the definition of the imposter phenomenon, and research on the imposter phenomenon in academic medicine. Approaches for managing the imposter phenomenon are described including personal, mentoring, and institutional strategies. Further research is needed to understand the frequency of the imposter phenomenon at different levels of seniority and optimal strategies for prevention and management.

Making the leap to medical education: a qualitative study of medical educators' experiences

CONTEXT

Medical educators often have prior and primary experience in other academic and clinical disciplines. Individuals seeking successful careers in the education of medical students and doctors must, at some point in their development, make a conscious transition into a new identity as a medical educator. This is a necessary move if individuals are to commit to acquiring and maintaining specialist expertise in medical education. Some achieve this transition successfully, whereas others struggle and may even lose interest and abandon the endeavour. We explored senior educators' experiences of achieving the transition into medical education and their views on what helps and what hinders the process.

METHODS

In 2015 we conducted three focus groups with 15 senior medical educators. All focus group discussions were audiorecorded and transcribed verbatim. We applied transition theory to guide our deductive analysis, using Schlossberg's Four S (4S) framework to code and report participants' self-reported perceptions of those factors relating to Self, Situation, Support and Strategy that had assisted them to make a successful transition to a fully acknowledged medical educator identity. Through inductive analysis, we then identified 17 explanatory sub-themes common to all three focus groups.

RESULTS

Background and circumstances, individual motivation, a sense of control, organisational support, and effective networking and information-seeking behaviour were factors identified as contributing to successful transition into, and maintenance of, a strong self-identity as a medical educator.

CONCLUSIONS

The experiences of established medical educators and, in particular, an exploration of the factors that have facilitated their transition to an acknowledged self-identity as a medical educator could assist in supporting new educators to cope with the changes involved in developing as a medical educator.

Buffering Impostor Feelings with Kindness: The Mediating Role of Self-compassion between Gender-Role Orientation and the Impostor Phenomenon

The impostor phenomenon (IP) refers to high-achievers who underestimate their abilities and thus fear being unmasked as impostors. IP sufferers attribute their success to factors other than their abilities, entailing negative emotions, unfavorable motivations, and reduced well-being. The IP was originally conceptualized as a predominantly female experience, and is thus seen as an important psychological barrier for female academic careers. Empirical findings of gender differences in the IP are equivocal, but sparse research on associations between gender-role orientation and the IP indicates that feminine students suffer more intensely from the IP than masculine students. Femininity and masculinity are also related to self-compassion, a rather young construct that enhances emotional resilience, well-being, and academic achievement. Self-compassion involves being kind to oneself when failing, perceiving one’s inadequacies as part of the human condition, and being mindful about negative aspects of oneself. It reduces fear of failure, denial of competences, and self-doubts which are central components of the IP. However, relations between self-compassion and the IP have not been investigated to date. In this study, we examine self-compassion as a potential resilience factor against the IP, taking gender and gender-role orientation into account. In a cross-sectional online survey, we investigated 459 (315 female) high-achieving first-year undergraduate students. Results include: Female, feminine, and undifferentiated students score higher on measures of the IP and lower on measures of self-compassion than male, masculine, or androgynous students. Higher levels of the IP are associated with lower levels of self-compassion across all students tested. Self-compassion further mediates the relationship between gender-role orientation and the IP. Interventions to enhance self-compassion might thus be an effective way to overcome impostor feelings. Female, feminine, and undifferentiated students might benefit most from facilitation of self-compassion in education.