A Theobromine Derivative with Anticancer Properties Targeting VEGFR-2: Semisynthesis, in silico and in vitro Studies

Rationale design and synthesis of new apoptotic thiadiazole derivatives targeting VEGFR-2: computational and in vitro studies

This work presents the synthesis and in vitro, and in silico analyses of new thiadiazole derivatives that are designed to mimic the pharmacophoric characteristics of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) inhibitors. A comprehensive evaluation of the inhibitory properties of the synthesized thiadiazole derivatives against the cancer cell lines MCF-7 and HepG2 identified several auspicious candidates. Among them, compound 14 showed remarkably low IC50 values of 0.04 μM and 0.18 μM against MCF-7 and HepG2, respectively. VEGFR-2 inhibitory evaluation of compound 14 revealed a promising IC50 value in the nanomolar range (103 nM). Further examination of the cell cycle revealed that compound 14 has the ability to stop the progression of the cell cycle in MCF-7 cells via G0-G1 phase arrest. Interestingly, compound 14 also demonstrated a noteworthy pro-apoptotic effect in MCF-7 cells, with notable increases in early apoptosis (16.53%) and late apoptosis (29.57%), along with a slight increase in the population of necrotic cells (5.95%). Furthermore, compound 14 showed a significant drop in MCF-7 cells' ability to migrate and heal wounds. Additionally, compound 14 promoted apoptosis by boosting BAX (6-fold) while lowering Bcl-2 (6.2-fold). The binding affinities of the synthesized candidates to their target (VEGFR-2) were confirmed by computational investigations, including molecular docking, principal component analysis of trajectories (PCAT), and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Additionally, compound 14's stability and reactivity were investigated using density functional theory (DFT). These thorough results highlight compound 14's potential as a lead contender for additional research in the creation of anticancer drugs that target VEGFR-2. This work establishes a foundation for promising thiadiazole derivatives for future therapeutic developments in anticancer- and angiogenesis-related scientific fields.

Exploring the anticancer properties of a new nicotinamide analogue: Investigations into in silico analysis, antiproliferative effects, selectivity, VEGFR-2 inhibition, apoptosis induction, and migration suppression

BACKGROUND

This study focuses on the development and evaluation of (E)-N-(3-(1-(2-(4-bromobenzoyl)hydrazono)ethyl)phenyl)nicotinamide (BHEPN) as a potential inhibitor of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor-2 (VEGFR-2).

METHODS

Computational investigations as density function theory (DFT), docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and ADMET) in addition to in vitro (VEGFR-2 inhibition, cytotoxicity against HepG2 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines, selectivity index, cells cycle analysis, apoptosis investigation, and cells migration assay) studies were conducted.

RESULTS

DFT calculations determined the three-dimensional structure and indicated the reactivity of BHEPN. Molecular docking, and MD simulations analysis showed the BHEPN's binding affinity and its potential as a VEGFR-2 inhibitor. ADMET assessments predicted BHEPN's safety and drug-like characteristics. In vitro investigations confirmed the inhibition of VEGFR-2 with an IC50 value of 0.320 ± 0.012 µM. BHEPN also exhibited remarkable cytotoxic effects against HepG2 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines, with IC50 values of 0.19 ± 0.01 µM and 1.18 ± 0.01 µM, respectively, outperforming Sorafenib's IC50 values (2.24 ± 0.06 µM and 3.17 ± 0.01 µM), respectively. Notably, BHEPN displayed a higher IC50 value of 4.11 ± 0 µM against the non-carcinogenic Vero cell lines, indicating selectivity index values of 21.6 and 3.4 against the tested cancer cell lines, respectively. In a flow cytometry assay, BHEPN induced HepG2 cell cycle arrest at the G1/S phase. Moreover, BHEPN increased the incidence of early and late apoptosis in HepG2 cell lines (from 1.38% and 0.22%) in control cells to (4.11-26.02%) in the treated cells, respectively. Additionally, the percentage of necrosis raised to 13.39%, in contrast to 0.62% in control cells. Finally, BHEPN was able to reduce the migration and wound healing abilities in HepG2 cells to 38.89% compared to 87.92% in untreated cells after 48 h. These in vitro results aligned with the computational predictions, providing strong evidence of BHEPN's efficacy and safety in anticancer applications.

CONCLUSIONS

BHEPN is a promising candidate for the development of novel anticancer agents through further in vitro and in vivo investigations.

A Theobromine Derivative with Anticancer Properties Targeting VEGFR-2: Semisynthesis, in silico and in vitro Studies

A computer-assisted drug design (CADD) approach was utilized to design a new acetamido-N-(para-fluorophenyl)benzamide) derivative of the naturally occurring alkaloid, theobromine, (T-1-APFPB), following the pharmacophoric features of VEGFR-2 inhibitors. The stability and reactivity of T-1-AFPB were assessed through density functional theory (DFT) calculations. Molecular docking assessments showed T-1-AFPB's potential to bind with and inhibit VEGFR-2. The precise binding of T-1-AFPB against VEGFR-2 with optimal energy was further confirmed through several molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, PLIP, MM-GBSA, and PCA studies. Then, T-1-AFPB (4-(2-(3,7-Dimethyl-2,6-dioxo-2,3,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-purin-1-yl)acetamido)-N-(4-fluorophenyl)benzamide) was semi-synthesized and the in vitro assays showed its potential to inhibit VEGFR-2 with an IC50 value of 69 nM (sorafenib's IC50 was 56 nM) and to inhibit the growth of HepG2 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines with IC50 values of 2.24±0.02 and 3.26±0.02 μM, respectively. Moreover, T-1-AFPB displayed very high selectivity indices against normal Vero cell lines. Furthermore, T-1-AFPB induced early (from 0.72 to 19.12) and late (from 0.13 to 6.37) apoptosis in HepG2 cell lines. In conclusion, the combined computational and experimental approaches demonstrated the efficacy and safety of T-1-APFPB providing it as a promising lead VEGFR-2 inhibitor for further development aiming at cancer therapy.