Separation of two cytotoxic saponins from the roots of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica by high-speed counter-current chromatography

Vanillin Promotes Osteoblast Differentiation, Mineral Apposition, and Antioxidant Effects in Pre-Osteoblasts

Antioxidant vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) is used as a flavoring in foods, beverages, and pharmaceuticals. Vanillin possesses various biological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and anticancer properties. This study aimed to investigate the biological activities of vanillin purified from Adenophora triphylla var. japonica Hara on bone-forming processes. Vanillin treatment induced mineralization as a marker for mature osteoblasts, after stimulating alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining and activity. The bone-forming processes of vanillin are mainly mediated by the upregulation of the bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2), phospho-Smad1/5/8, and runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) pathway during the differentiation of osteogenic cells. Moreover, vanillin promoted osteoblast-mediated bone-forming phenotypes by inducing migration and F-actin polymerization. Furthermore, we validated that vanillin-mediated bone-forming processes were attenuated by noggin and DKK1. Finally, we demonstrated that vanillin-mediated antioxidant effects prevent the death of osteoblasts during bone-forming processes. Overall, vanillin has bone-forming properties through the BMP2-mediated biological mechanism, indicating it as a bone-protective compound for bone health and bone diseases such as periodontitis and osteoporosis.

Hexane Fraction of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica Root Extract Inhibits Angiogenesis and Endothelial Cell-Induced Erlotinib Resistance in Lung Cancer Cells

The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-angiogenic effects of the hexane fraction of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica root extract (HAT) and its influence on the development of erlotinib resistance in human lung cancer cells. HAT significantly reduced the migration, invasion, and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The phosphorylation levels of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) and its downstream molecules were decreased via HAT, indicating its anti-angiogenic potential in endothelial cells (ECs). A docking analysis demonstrated that β-sitosterol and lupeol, representative components of HAT, exhibit a high affinity for binding to VEGFR2. In addition, conditioned media from HAT-pretreated H1299 human lung cancer cells attenuated cancer-cell-induced chemotaxis of HUVECs, which was attributed to the decreased expression of angiogenic and chemotactic factors in H1299 cells. Interestingly, co-culture of erlotinib-sensitive PC9 human lung cancer cells with HUVECs induced erlotinib resistance in PC9 cells. However, co-culture with HAT-pretreated HUVECs partially restored the sensitivity of PC9 cells to erlotinib. HAT inhibited the development of erlotinib resistance by attenuating hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) production by ECs. Taken together, our results demonstrate that HAT exerts its anticancer effects by regulating the crosstalk between ECs and lung cancer cells.

Adenophora Stricta Root Extract Protects Lung Injury from Exposure to Particulate Matter 2.5 in Mice

Chronic exposure of particulate matter of less than 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) has been considered as one of the major etiologies for various respiratory diseases. Adenophora stricta Miq. is a medicinal herb that has been used for treating respiratory diseases in East Asia. The present study investigated the effect of A. stricta root extract (AsE) on PM_2.5-induced lung injury in mice. Oral administration of 100-400 mg/kg AsE for 10 days significantly reduced the PM_2.5-mediated increase in relative lung weight, but there was no difference in body weight with AsE administration. In addition, AsE dose-dependently decreased congested region of the lung tissue, prevented apoptosis and matrix degradation, and alleviated mucus stasis induced by PM_2.5. Moreover, cytological analysis of bronchioalveolar lavage fluid revealed that AsE significantly inhibited the infiltration of immune cells into the lungs. Consistently, AsE also decreased expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in lung tissue. Furthermore, AsE administration blocked reactive oxygen species production and lipid peroxidation through attenuating the PM_2.5-dependent reduction of antioxidant defense system in the lungs. Therefore, A. stricta root would be a promising candidate for protecting lung tissue from air pollution such as PM_2.5.

Recent Advances in Separation and Analysis of Saponins in Natural Products

To better control the quality of saponins, ensure their biological activity and clinical therapeutic effect, and expand the development and application of saponins, this paper systematically and comprehensively reviews the separation and analytical methods of saponins in the past decade. Since 2010, the electronic databases of PubMed, Google Scholar, ISI Web of Science, Science Direct, Wiley, Springer, CNKI (National Knowledge Infrastructure, CNKI), Wanfang Med online, and other databases have been searched systematically. As a result, it is found that ionic liquids and high-performance countercurrent chromatography are the most popular extraction and separation techniques for saponins, and the combined chromatography technique is the most widely used method for the analysis of saponins. Liquid chromatography can be used in combination with different detectors to achieve qualitative or quantitative analysis and quality control of saponin compounds in medicinal materials and their preparations. This paper provides the latest valuable insights and references for the analytical methods and continued development and application of saponins.

Ethyl Acetate Fraction of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica Inhibits Migration of Lewis Lung Carcinoma Cells by Suppressing Macrophage Polarization toward an M2 Phenotype

Objectives

It is reported that tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) contribute to cancer progression by promoting tumor growth and metastasis. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of different fractions of Adenophora triphylla var. japonica (AT) on the polarization of macrophages into the M2 phenotype, a major phenotype of TAMs.

Methods

We isolated hexane, ethyl acetate, and butanol fractions from crude ethanol extract of AT. The cytotoxicity of AT in RAW264.7 cells was examined by 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. RAW264.7 cells were polarized into the M2 phenotype by treatment with interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13. The expression of M2 macrophage marker genes was detected by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The phosphorylation level of signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6) was investigated by western blot analysis. The migration of Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cells was examined by transwell migration assay using conditioned media (CM) collected from RAW264.7 cells as a chemoattractant.

Results

Among various fractions of AT, the ethyl acetate fraction of AT (EAT) showed the most significant suppressive effect on the mRNA expression of M2 macrophage markers, including arginase-1, interleukin (IL)-10 and mannose receptor C type 1 (MRC-1), up-regulated by treatment of IL-4 and IL-13. In addition, EAT suppressed the phosphorylation of STAT6, a critical regulator of IL-4 and IL-13-induced M2 macrophage polarization. Finally, the increased migration of Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cells by CM from M2-polarized RAW264.7 cells was reduced by CM from RAW264.7 cells co-treated with EAT and M2 polarization inducers.

Conclusion

We demonstrated that EAT attenuated cancer cell migration through suppression of macrophage polarization toward the M2 phenotype. Additional preclinical or clinical researches are needed to evaluate its regulatory effects on macrophage polarization and anti-cancer activities.

Antitussive, expectorant, and anti-inflammatory effects of Adenophorae Radix powder in ICR mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Adenophora triphylla var. japonica is frequently used as an oriental medicinal plant in Korea, China, and Japan for its anti-inflammatory, antitussive, and hepatoprotective effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In the present study, the antitussive, expectorant, and anti-inflammatory effects of AR powder were investigated using animal models to evaluate their potential to treat respiratory disorders.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

AR powder was administered orally to mice once daily for 11 days, at dose levels of 400, 200, and 100 mg/kg. Theobromine (TB), ambroxol (AM) and dexamethasone (DEXA) were used as standard drugs for antitussive effects, expectorant effects and anti-inflammatory effects, respectively. Evaluations of antitussive effects were based on changes in body weight, the number of cough responses and the histopathology of the lung and trachea. Expectorant effects were based on changes in the body weight, macroscopic observations of body surface redness, the mucous secretion of the trachea and histopathology of lung (secondary bronchus). Anti-inflammatory effects were based on changes in the body weight, macroscopic observations involving redness and edema of the treated ear, absolute and relative ear weights and histopathology of the treated ears.

RESULTS

Allergic acute inflammation and coughing induced by exposure to NH₄OH and symptoms of xylene-induced contact dermatitis were significantly inhibited by treatment with AR powder in a dose-dependent manner. Histological analyses revealed that AR powder decreased the OD values in trachea lavage fluid, reduced body surface redness, thicknesses of intrapulmonary secondary bronchus mucosa, and the number of PAS-positive mucous producing cells. Overall, AR powder administered at 200 mg/kg displayed superior antitussive and expectorant effects as compared to TB (50 mg/kg), and AM (250 mg/kg). At the highest concentration (400 mg/kg) AR powder displayed only moderately improved anti-inflammatory activities as compared to DEXA (1 mg/kg).

CONCLUSION

The results obtained in this study suggest that AR powder exerts dose-dependent, favorable antitussive, expectorant, and anti-inflammatory activities achieved through modulation of the activity of mast cells and respiratory mucous production. Therefore, AR powder may serve as a therapeutic agent in various respiratory disorders, especially those that occur as a result of environmental toxicants.

Growth and Physiological Responses of Adenophora triphylla (Thunb.) A.DC. Plug Seedlings to Day and Night Temperature Regimes

Adenophora triphylla (Thunb.) A.DC., three-leaf lady bell, is an important medicinal plant used against cancers and obesity. It has been well-established that the temperature regime affects plant growth and development in many ways. However, there is no study available correlating the growth of A. triphylla seedlings with different day and night temperature regimes. In order to find an optimal temperature regime, growth and physiology were investigated in A. triphylla plug seedlings grown in environment-controlled chambers at different day and night temperatures: 20/20 °C (day/night) (TA), 25/15 °C (TB), and 20/15 °C (TC). The seedlings in plug trays were grown under a light intensity of 150 μmol·m−2·s−1 PPFD (photosynthetic photon flux density) provided by white LEDs, a 70% relative humidity, and a 16 h (day)/8 h (night) photoperiod for six weeks. The results showed that the stem diameter, number of roots, and biomass were significantly larger for seedlings in TB than those in TA or TC. Moreover, the contents of total flavonoid, total phenol, and soluble sugar in seedlings grown in TB were markedly higher than those in seedlings in the other two treatments. Soluble protein content was the lowest in seedlings in TC, while starch content was the lowest in seedlings grown in TA. Furthermore, seedlings grown in TB showed significantly lower activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, and guaiacol peroxidase. Native PAGE (polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) analysis further proved low activities of antioxidant isozymes in TB treatment. Meanwhile, the lowest content of hydrogen peroxide was observed in seedlings grown in TB. In conclusion, the results suggested that the 25/15 °C (day/night) temperature regime is the most suitable for the growth and physiological development of A. triphylla seedlings.

Countercurrent chromatography separation of saponins by skeleton type from Ampelozizyphus amazonicus for off-line ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/high resolution accurate mass spectrometry analysis and characterisation

Ampelozizyphus amazonicus Ducke (Rhamnaceae), a medicinal plant used to prevent malaria, is a climbing shrub, native to the Amazonian region, with jujubogenin glycoside saponins as main compounds. The crude extract of this plant is too complex for any kind of structural identification, and HPLC separation was not sufficient to resolve this issue. Therefore, the aim of this work was to obtain saponin enriched fractions from the bark ethanol extract by countercurrent chromatography (CCC) for further isolation and identification/characterisation of the major saponins by HPLC and MS. The butanol extract was fractionated by CCC with hexane - ethyl acetate - butanol - ethanol - water (1:6:1:1:6; v/v) solvent system yielding 4 group fractions. The collected fractions were analysed by UHPLC-HRMS (ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/high resolution accurate mass spectrometry) and MSn. Group 1 presented mainly oleane type saponins, and group 3 showed mainly jujubogenin glycosides, keto-dammarane type triterpene saponins and saponins with C31 skeleton. Thus, CCC separated saponins from the butanol-rich extract by skeleton type. A further purification of group 3 by CCC (ethyl acetate - ethanol - water (1:0.2:1; v/v)) and HPLC-RI was performed in order to obtain these unusual aglycones in pure form.

A new tropane alkaloid from the leaves of Erythroxylum subsessile isolated by pH-zone-refining counter-current chromatography

Tropane alkaloids are bioactive metabolites with great importance in the pharmaceutical industry and the most important class of natural products found in the Erythroxylum genus. However, these compounds are usually separated by traditional chromatographic techniques, in which the sample is progressively purified in multiple chromatographic steps, resulting in a time- and solvent-consuming procedure. In this work we present the isolation of a novel alkaloid, 6β,7β-dibenzoyloxytropan-3α-ol, together with the two known 3α-benzoyloxynortropan-6β-ol and 3α,6β-dibenzoyloxytropane alkaloids, directly from the crude alkaloid fraction from the leaves of Erythroxylum subsessile, by using a single run pH-zone-refining counter-current chromatography method. The ethyl acetate/water (1:1, v/v) biphasic solvent system with triethylamine and HCl as retention and eluter agents, respectively, was used to isolate tropane alkaloids for the first time. The structures of the isolated alkaloids were elucidated by spectroscopic methods.

Antiproliferative quillaic acid and gypsogenin saponins from Saponaria officinalis L. roots

Nine quillaic acid and five gypsogenin bisdesmosides were isolated from roots of Saponaria officinalis L. (Caryophyllaceae). Seven of the quillaic acid saponins possessed a 3-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 3)]-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl unit, but differed from each other in oligosaccharide units linked to the C-28 ester. The five gypsogenin saponins isolated from the roots all possessed the 3-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 3)]-β-D-glucuronopyranosyl unit, with their oligosaccharide units linked to the C-28 ester differing. Structures were elucidated by extensive 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. The saponins were evaluated for growth inhibitory activity in two human cancer cell lines and hemolytic activity in sheep red blood cells.

Ethanol extract of Remotiflori radix induces endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated cell death through AMPK/mTOR signaling in human prostate cancer cells

Remotiflori radix is the root of Mosidae, which has long been used as a traditional medicine to treat chills, fever, and phlegm discharge. The ethanol extract of Mosidae leaves (MLE) possesses strong antioxidant and chemopreventive activities. However, the anti-cancer effects of the Remotiflori radix have not been examined. We used the ethanol extract of Remotiflori radix (ERR) and the PC-3 and DU145 prostate cancer cell lines in this study. We found that > 100 μg/mL ERR caused dose- and time-dependent cell death. Autophagic and apoptotic cell numbers increased in a dose-dependent manner as incubation time was prolonged, and LC3 punctuation, YO-PRO-1 uptake, DNA fragmentation, activation of caspases, and PARP cleavage were induced. Phosphorylation of AMPK, ULK, and p38 was increased after ERR treatment, and the level of the ER stress marker CHOP was also elevated. AMPK knockdown dramatically blocked ERR-mediated CHOP expression and cell death, suggesting that AMPK activation and ER stress play a critical role in ERR-induced cell death. Furthermore, oral administration of ERR at 50 mg/kg efficiently suppressed tumorigenic growth of PC-3 cells with no adverse effects. These results suggest that the ERR can be used as a safe and potent alternative therapy for patients with prostate cancer.