Conceptualization and assessment of personality factors in depression

Investigating psychometric properties of short versions of the depressive experiences questionnaire: Findings from a representative large sample of Chinese adolescents

BACKGROUND

Adolescence involves a period of swift change, including the development of personality vulnerabilities (i.e., dependency and self-criticism) that act as transdiagnostic factors to psychopathology. Over the past several decades, numerous short revisions have condensed the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) into more efficient measures of personality vulnerability. Prior research has investigated the psychometric properties of the short DEQs in adult and clinical samples. However, there has been insufficient exploration within adolescents, who are in addition marked by fluctuating personality vulnerabilities.

METHOD

A representative large sample of adolescents and emerging adults in China aged 10 to 25 (N = 23,953) was administered five short DEQs, including the Revised DEQ (RevDEQ), Reconstructed DEQ (RecDEQ), Theoretical DEQ-21/12 (TDEQ-21/12) and adolescent DEQ (DEQ-A). The data was evaluated for internal consistency and criterion-related validity, while factor structure and measurement invariances across gender and age groups were analyzed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). A subset of the original sample (N = 2874) was retested after six months and analyzed for test-retest reliability and cross-time invariance.

RESULT

CFA of the TDEQ-21/12 and RecDEQ supported the intended two-factor model. Good criterion-related validity, internal consistency and test-retest reliability for these three versions were found. Satisfying measurement invariances across gender, time, and age groups were established.

LIMITATION

The study's scope was confined to non-clinical adolescent populations within China, highlighting a gap in cross-cultural and clinical applicability.

CONCLUSION

The present study supports the use of the TDEQ-21/12 and RecDEQ as valid and concise instruments for measuring Chinese adolescent personality vulnerability.

"I forgive myself": The association between self-criticism, self-acceptance, and PTSD in women victims of IPV, and the buffering role of self-efficacy

The effects of intimate partner violence (IPV) concerning specifically posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology have been widely demonstrated, but the consequences of abuse are not the same for all victims. We know little about the psychological processes that limit these adverse consequences. Therefore, we explored the association between self-criticism felt by abused women and their PTSD, and we investigated self-acceptance as the underlying process explaining this relationship. We also examined self-efficacy as the protective (moderating) factor. The results indicated that self-criticism was indirectly associated with greater PTSD via lower self-acceptance. Critically, the indirect effect only emerged for individuals low in self-efficacy.

Perfectionism Dimensions and the Five–factor Model of Personality

This study of university students ( n = 357) and community adults ( n = 223) examined personal standards (PS) and evaluative concerns (EC) higher–order dimensions of perfectionism that underlie several measures from three different theoretical frameworks. In both students and community adults, confirmatory factor analyses supported PS perfectionism and EC perfectionism higher–order latent factors. In relation to the revised NEO Personality Inventory, PS perfectionism was primarily related to conscientiousness and achievement striving. In contrast, EC perfectionism was primarily related to neuroticism, and lower positive emotions, trust and competence. EC perfectionism accounted for unique variance in current depressive and anxious symptoms over and above the five–factor domain scores. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Neediness and connectedness and the five‐factor model of personality

This study examined maladaptive and relatively more adaptive forms of dependency, as measured by the neediness and connectedness factors of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ; Blatt, D'Afflitti, & Quinlan, 1976), within a comprehensive scheme of personality provided by the revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO‐PI‐R; Costa & McCrae, 1992). University students (n = 475) completed the DEQ, NEO‐PI‐R, and a measure of depressive symptoms. Results indicated that neediness reflected anxiety, self‐consciousness, vulnerability, unassertiveness, and inactivity, whereas connectedness reflected anxiety, warmth, agreeableness, and valuing of relationships. Neediness demonstrated stronger relations than connectedness with depressive symptoms. These results support the validity of DEQ neediness and connectedness as measures of maladaptive and relatively more adaptive forms of dependency. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Personality, Cognition, and Adaptability to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Associations with Loneliness, Distress, and Positive and Negative Mood States

The current research examined personality and individual difference factors associated with the perceived ability to adapt to the significant challenges accompanying the ongoing public health crisis concerning the COVID-19 pandemic. This cross-sectional study investigated the associations among self-reported adaptability to the pandemic and personality predispositions (dependency, self-criticism, mattering, and self-esteem), cognitive factors (positive, negative, and loneliness automatic thoughts), loneliness, distress, and mood states. A sample of 462 college students from Israel completed an online questionnaire after 10 weeks of social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results confirmed that personality vulnerability factors underscored by a negative sense of self (i.e., self-criticism and dependency) and individual difference factors reflecting self-esteem, feelings of mattering, and fear of not mattering are associated in meaningful ways with adaptability to the pandemic, loneliness, distress, negative mood states, and positive mood states. Most notably, higher self-reported adaptability to the pandemic is associated with lower dependency, self-criticism, and fear of not mattering, and higher levels of self-esteem and mattering. The findings attest to the central role of adaptability and related individual difference factors in acclimatizing to the numerous changes and challenges associated with the COVID-19 crisis. The theoretical and practical implications of our findings are discussed.

The big five personality traits, perfectionism and their association with mental health among UK students on professional degree programmes

Background

In view of heightened rates of suicide and evidence of poor mental health among healthcare occupational groups, such as veterinarians, doctors, pharmacists and dentists, there has been increasing focus on the students aiming for careers in these fields. It is often proposed that a high proportion of these students may possess personality traits which render them vulnerable to mental ill-health.

Aim

To explore the relationship between the big five personality traits, perfectionism and mental health in UK students undertaking undergraduate degrees in veterinary medicine, medicine, pharmacy, dentistry and law.

Methods

A total of 1744 students studying veterinary medicine, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy and law in the UK completed an online questionnaire, which collected data on the big five personality traits (NEO-FFI), perfectionism (Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale), wellbeing (Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale), psychological distress (General Health Questionnaire-12), depression (Beck Depression Inventory-II) and suicidal ideation and attempts.

Results

Veterinary, medical and dentistry students were significantly more agreeable than law students, while veterinary students had the lowest perfectionism scores of the five groups studied. High levels of neuroticism and low conscientiousness were predictive of increased mental ill-health in each of the student populations.

Conclusions

The study highlights that the prevailing anecdotal view of professional students possessing maladaptive personality traits that negatively impact on their mental health may be misplaced.

Are Perfectionistic Thoughts an Antecedent or a Consequence of Depressive Symptoms? A Cross-Lagged Analysis of the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory

Perfectionistic automatic thoughts have been linked with depressive symptoms in numerous cross-sectional studies, but this link has not been assessed in longitudinal research. An investigation with two timepoints was conducted to test whether perfectionistic automatic thoughts, as assessed by the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI), are contributors to subsequent depression or vice versa. The possible role of a third factor (major life events stress) was also evaluated. A sample of 118 university students completed the PCI, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), and the Life Experiences Survey on two occasions with a 5-month interval. A cross-lagged analysis using structural equation modeling showed that above and beyond within-time associations and across-time stability effects, perfectionism automatic thoughts contributed to subsequent depressive symptoms and not vice versa. Negative life events stress was correlated significantly with both depressive symptoms and perfectionism automatic thoughts but did not have an influence on Time 2 depressive symptoms or on perfectionistic automatic thoughts. Our discussion focuses on perfectionistic automatic thoughts as a contributor to depressive vulnerability according to the perfectionism cognition theory.

How Should Discrepancy Be Assessed in Perfectionism Research? A Psychometric Analysis and Proposed Refinement of the Almost Perfect Scale–Revised

Research on perfectionism with the Almost Perfect Scale–Revised (APS-R) distinguishes adaptive perfectionists versus maladaptive perfectionists based primarily on their responses to the 12-item unidimensional APS-R Discrepancy subscale, which assesses the sense of falling short of standards. People described as adaptive perfectionists have high standards but low levels of discrepancy (i.e., relatively close to attaining these standards). Maladaptive perfectionists have perfectionistic high standards and high levels of discrepancy. In the current work, we re-examine the psychometric properties of the APS-R Discrepancy subscale and illustrate that this supposedly unidimensional discrepancy measure may actually consists of more than one factor. Psychometric analyses of data from student and community samples distinguished a pure five-item discrepancy factor and a second four-item factor measuring dissatisfaction. The five-item factor is recommended as a brief measure of discrepancy from perfection and the four-item factor is recommended as a measure of dissatisfaction with being imperfect. Overall, our results confirm past suggestions that most people with maladaptive perfectionism are characterized jointly by chronic dissatisfaction as well as a sense of being discrepant due to having fallen short of expectations. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for the assessment of perfectionism, as well as the implications for research and practice.

The Power of Love: Mediation of Rejection in Roommate Relationships of Dependents and Self-Critics

This research examined roommate responses to dependent and self-critical personality styles in the hope of finding individuals for whom rejection may be more likely. Interpersonal traits associated with dependency and self-criticism along the love and dominance axes of the Circumplex also were investigated to clarify patterns contributing to roommate rejection. Both dependents and self-critics were more depressed throughout the year. Dependents, however, were perceived as more submissive and loving and were better accepted by roommates. Self-critics were seen as submissive and hostile and were more likely to be rejected. Structural equation modeling indicated that the personality-rejection effects were mediated by perceived interpersonal traits along the love axis and their associated affective consequences for roommates.

The acting White accusation, racial identity, and anxiety in African American adolescents

Acting White is one of the most negative accusations an African American adolescent can receive from another. The accusation can either be made directly or indirectly. Research suggests that receiving the accusation may create distress for some African American adolescents. The current study examined the relationship between experiencing the acting White accusation, racial identity, and anxiety among African American adolescents. High school students completed the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM), the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC) and the Acting White Experiences Questionnaire (AWEQ). Results indicated that adolescents who both directly and indirectly experienced the AWA reported higher anxiety than those who only indirectly experienced the AWA. Additionally, adolescents who reported experiencing more indirect aspects of the accusation or being "bothered" more by the accusation reported higher levels of anxiety. Findings suggest that the acting White accusation may be a culturally relevant factor influencing anxiety among African American adolescents.

The mediating role of self-criticism and dependency in the association between perceptions of maternal caring and depressive symptoms

BACKGROUND

This study examined a theoretically based mediation model including participants' perceptions of early relationships with their mother, self-criticism, dependency, and current depressive symptoms. We expect that (a) early relationships characterized by low levels of care and high levels of overprotection will be positively associated with both current depressive state and self-criticism and dependency; (b) high levels of self-criticism and dependency will be positively associated with depressive symptoms; and (c) self-criticism and dependency will play a mediating role in the association between participants' perceptions of early relationships characterized by low levels of care and high levels of overprotection and their current depressive symptoms.

METHODS

A nonclinical community sample of 200 Portuguese adults participated in the study. Perceptions of early relationships were measured using the mother scales of the Parental Bonding Instrument (Parker et al. [1979: Br J Med Psychol 52:1-10]), levels of self-criticism and dependency were measured using the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (Blatt et al. [1976: J Abn Psy 6:383-389]), and depressive symptoms were measured using the Center for the Epidemiological Studies of Depression Scale (Radloff [1977: Appl Psychol Meas 1:385-401].

RESULTS

Structural equation modeling showed that the link between participants' perceptions of early caretaking relationships with their mothers and their current depressive symptoms is mediated by high levels of self-criticism--a personality trait associated with vulnerability to depression--but not Dependency. However, an ancillary analysis indicated that the link between participants' perceptions of early maternal overprotective relationships and their current depressive symptoms is mediated by high levels of Neediness.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings underscore the role of perceived early relationships in psychological vulnerability to depression among highly self-critical and among highly needy individuals and highlight the negative role played by perceived mothers' early dysfunctional practices, characterized by low levels of caring and high levels of overprotection, for the self-critical vulnerability to depression and by perceived mothers' high levels of overprotection, for the neediness vulnerability to depression. These potential causal mechanisms warrant longitudinal evaluation. Theoretical and clinical implications of the findings are discussed.

The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire: construct validity and prediction of depressive symptoms in a sample of Chinese undergraduates

BACKGROUND

The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) was developed to measure two dimensions of depression-prone personality, Dependency and Self-criticism. We investigated the construct validity and prediction of DEQ in a Chinese sample, and explored whether Blatt's conceptualizations of depression-prone personality variables are appropriate for the Chinese context.

METHODS

The original version of the DEQ was translated into Chinese (DEQ-C). During the initial assessment, 640 Chinese university students completed the DEQ-C and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Six months later, the CES-D was re-administered.

RESULTS

A principal components analysis yielded a three-factor model that was consistent with Blatt's theory. However, these three factors emerged in a different order in comparison to the original sample. Factorial validity was also acceptable with low correlations between each DEQ-C factor in males (r=.01 approximately -0.14), and females (r=0.19 approximately 0.28). Convergent validity was supported by significant positive correlations between the CES-D and both Dependency and Self-criticism. Predictive validity was demonstrated by hierarchical multiple regression analyses showing that Self-criticism predicted increased depressive symptoms both in males (beta=0.27, p<0.01) and in females (beta=0.16, p<0.05); Dependency predicted levels of depressive symptoms only in females (beta=0.11, p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The Chinese version of the DEQ demonstrated satisfactory validity, including construct validity and predictive validity, the DEQ-C can be considered as an appropriate tool for assessing personality vulnerability to depression in Chinese college students.

The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire: On Using a Student-Based Scoring Program for a Clinical Sample

In both clinical and nonclinical samples, the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire is scored with a program that computes factor scores by using means, standard deviations, and item-loadings of a student sample. The underlying assumption of the use of this program in clinical samples is that factor scores computed on the basis of the student factor solution are similar to factor scores computed on the basis of a clinical factor solution. Consequently, both series of scores should lead up to the same conclusions when studying associations with theoretically related variables. This assumption has not been tested although the questionnaire has been used in research for almost 30 years. In the present paper an alternative scoring program was constructed, based on the factor solution of a clinical sample ( N = 400) to assess whether scores of this clinical scoring program are associated in the same way with different types of depressive symptoms and interpersonal problems as the scores of the original (student-based) program. Analysis gave results inconsistent with the assumption and did not support the use of the student-based scoring program in the clinical sample. Further, results suggest that standards for assessing factorial similarity used in confirmatory factor analysis might be too lenient.

The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire

Abstract. The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ; Blatt, D'Aflitti, & Quinlan, 1976 ) is a self-report questionnaire designed to differentiate between dependency and self-criticism, two personality traits associated with increased risk for psychopathology in general and depression in particular. Over the years, different shortened versions of the DEQ have been constructed, attempting to offer an alternative for the complex scoring procedure of the original DEQ. In this article, the authors studied the factorial validity of the original DEQ and of six shortened versions in a student sample (N = 636) and in a clinical sample (N = 404) by means of confirmatory factor analysis. Furthermore, the construct validity of the different versions of the DEQ was studied by computing correlations with different types of depressive symptoms and interpersonal problems. Dependency was hypothesized to be associated with somatic depressive symptoms and with nonassertive, overly accommodating, and self-sacrificing interpersonal behavior; self-criticism would be associated with cognitive depressive symptoms and with vindictive, cold, and socially inhibited interpersonal behavior. In the present study, the reconstructed DEQ ( Bagby, Parker, Joffe, & Buis, 1994 ) demonstrated the best psychometric properties. This factor model showed good fit to student and clinical (raw as well as ipsatized) data. Furthermore, intercorrelations between scores on dependency and self-criticism were adequately low (around .45) and the associations with different types of depressive symptoms and interpersonal characteristics were in line with theoretical predictions. Importantly, ipsatization of the DEQ scores was necessary to observe the hypothesized associations with depressive symptoms. Overall, the authors concluded that the reconstructed DEQ is a simple and valid scoring procedure with some important advantages compared to the more complex scoring procedures of the DEQ.

The apple does not fall far from the tree: attachment styles and personality vulnerabilities to depression in three generations of women

The intergenerational transmission of attachment insecurity was examined in a community sample of 300 participants consisting of 100 three-generation triads of women. It was hypothesized that personality vulnerabilities mediate the association between attachment insecurity and depression within each generation. Findings show significant intergenerational congruence of trait vulnerabilities and attachment styles. Moreover, the second generation's attachment dimensions and personality vulnerabilities were found to mediate the association between first- and third-generation scores on attachment and vulnerability variables. Findings supported the following hypothesized within- and between-generation paths: Within generations, self-criticism was found to mediate the association between attachment insecurity and depression; between generations, depression, but not self-criticism, mediated the association between assessments of attachment insecurity in mothers and their daughters. This study constitutes a first approach to the delineation of the role played by self-criticism in the association between negative models of the self and depression across generations.

Perfectionism, Ego Defense Styles, and Depression: A Comparison of Self-Reports Versus Informant Ratings

The present study examined the associations among perfectionism, defense styles, and depression in an Israeli community sample of young adults. This study involved a comparison of self-reports and informant ratings on all measures. A community sample of 210 pairs of same-sex best friends from Israel completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Defense Styles Questionnaire - 40, and a depression measure. Analyses confirmed that socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with depression, not only in terms of self-reports but also in terms of informant ratings. In addition, informant ratings revealed a link between other-oriented perfectionism and depression. Both self-reports and informant ratings also indicated that socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with immature defense styles and neurotic defense styles. Further simultaneous Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) analyses of self-reports and informant ratings showed that maladaptive defense styles mediate the link between socially prescribed perfectionism and depression. The practical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.

INTERPERSONAL RELATEDNESS AND SELF-DEFINITION IN LATE ADULTHOOD DEPRESSION: PERSONALITY PREDISPOSITIONS, AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS

This study addresses depression in late adulthood within the context of Blatt's (1974; 1991) theory of development and vulnerabilities to depression. Participants were a sample of 237 Israeli community-dwelling old adults (age 65–75) in good health and functioning well. The authors assumed that in this developmental period, normally beset with questions about self-identity and interpersonal relatedness, the associations among Self-criticism, the Neediness component of dependency, and depressive symptomatology are moderated by participants' perceived social support as well as by their fear of death. As expected, the correlational results confirmed that depression in late adulthood is associated with Self-criticism, Neediness, fear of death, and low perceived social support. Additional results illustrated the protective role of Efficacy and Connectedness, as well as the buffering roles of social support and low fear of death in the relation between vulnerabilities to depression and depressive symptoms in late adulthood. The overall findings highlight the relevance of personality vulnerability factors in depression in late adulthood and the need to consider a range of moderating factors that may serve to protectively buffer or exacerbate the impact of personality vulnerability factors.

Conceptualizing and measuring personality vulnerability to depression: comment on Coyne and Whiffen (1995)

J. C. Coyne and V. E. Whiffen (1995) reviewed research on personality vulnerability to depression, focusing on S. J. Blatt's (1974, 1990) concepts of dependency and self-criticism and A. T. Beck's (1983) concepts of sociotropy and autonomy. The authors discuss 6 issues raised in that review: (a) the typological or dimensional nature of vulnerability, (b) the theoretical implications of "mixed" vulnerability, (c) the relations of vulnerability to Neuroticism. (d) the potential confounding of vulnerability with concurrent depression, (e) the potential confounding of vulnerability with social context, and (f) the differentiation of dependency from relatedness. The authors conclude that Blatt's and Beck's concepts are continuous, nearly orthogonal dimensions that can be identified and measured independently from Neuroticism, depression, and social context.

An interactive-synergetic approach to the assessment of personality vulnerability to depression: Illustration using the adolescent version of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire

Research on personality vulnerability to depression is characterized by a "main effect" approach, often at the expense of examining interactions among various dimensions of vulnerability. To compare the "main effect" and "interactive-synergetic" approaches, we utilized data from a longitudinal study of adolescent adjustment. Focusing on dependency, self-criticism, and efficacy, the three factors of the adolescent version of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ; Blatt, Schaffer, Bers, & Quinlan, 1992), we found support for the interactive-synergetic approach. Dependency and self-criticism interacted in predicting changes in depressive and internalizing symptoms (under low efficacy), and among boys-changes in internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Results illuminate the synergetic interplay among dimensions of risk and resilience in clinical research and practice.

SELF- AND BEST-FRIEND ASSESSMENTS OF PERSONALITY VULNERABILITY AND DEFENSES IN THE PREDICTION OF DEPRESSION

The associations are explored between personality vulnerability and the use of defense mechanisms in the prediction of depression. A nonclinical community sample of 187 respondents and their same-sex best friends reported on participants' personality vulnerability factors (Self-criticism, Dependency and Efficacy), defense mechanisms (Mature, Immature and Emotion-avoiding), and depression (Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale: CES-D; Radloff, 1977). It was found that Mature defenses were associated only with Efficacy. Extensive use of Immature and Emotion-avoiding defenses was associated with vulnerability to depression. Furthermore, Immature defenses interacted with personality vulnerabilities. Specifically, highly self-critical participants who reported low levels of Immature defense were less depressed than were participants high on both Self-criticism and Immature defense. High Immature defense scores mediated the effect of Dependency on depression. Finally, more severe vulnerability was found when targets both rated themselves and were rated by their best friends as higher on Dependency and/or on Emotion-avoiding defenses. The implications of these findings for the study of the role of defense mechanisms in personality configurations and their susceptibility to depression, as well as for the use of multisource assessment strategies in the study of personality, are discussed. Finally, the practical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.

A multisource approach to self-critical vulnerability to depression: the moderating role of attachment

The present study investigated the effects of self-criticism, dependency, and attachment variables in depression among couples. We utilized a multisource design that involved self-reports and spouse reports of personality and depression. This approach enabled us to explore the patterns of relations between self-reported and the spouse's report of the partner's view of self-criticism, dependency, and attachment dimensions, as well as the contribution of the latter to the moderation of distress. Participants were 120 couples in their first marriages. It was found that: (1) Self- and spouses' reported self-criticism are both associated with depression; (2) negative assessments of personality factors and attachment models by the self and spouse contribute uniquely in predicting depressive symptomatology; and (3) beyond the covariation between target's depression and marital maladjustment, attachment models of self and of other as reported by both the self and spouse moderate the effects of self-reported personality vulnerability on depressive symptomatology. Our results indicate that self-ratings and ratings by others must both be considered in the context of depression in close interpersonal relationships. Beyond the methodological implications of multisource data, our findings support the view of depression as an interpersonal process.

Dimensions of depression and perfectionism in pregnant and nonpregnant women: their levels and interrelationships and their relationship to marital satisfaction

The authors studied S. J. Blatt's (1974) 2 dimensions of depression (anaclitic and introjective), P. L. Hewitt and G. L. Flett's (1991b) 3 dimensions of perfectionism (socially prescribed, self-oriented, and other-oriented), and the relationship between these and marital satisfaction in 100 married women in the last trimester of their first pregnancy and in 50 married women who had not yet experienced pregnancy. The measures used were the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (S. J. Blatt, J. P. D'Afflitti, & D. M. Quinlan. 1976a, 1976b), the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (P. L. Hewitt & G. L. Flett, 1989), and G. B. Spanier's (1976) Dyadic Adjustment Scale. Pregnant and nonpregnant women did not differ in anaclitic depression, but the level of introjective depression of pregnant women was lower than that of nonpregnant women. The two groups did not differ in level of marital satisfaction or in any of the dimensions of perfectionism. For both groups, introjective depression was positively correlated with socially prescribed perfectionism and negatively correlated with marital satisfaction. Self-oriented perfectionism was positively related to introjective depression and negatively related to marital satisfaction for nonpregnant women. For the pregnant women, there was a negative relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and marital satisfaction. Anaclitic depression and other-oriented perfectionism were unrelated to any of the other variables studied.

Dimensional Models of Personality: A Framework for Systematic Clinical Assessment1

Personality research has made considerable progress in developing dimensional models. This article reviews the application of these trait models to clinical theory and practice. Assessment of traits is useful for understanding the individual client, for diagnosis and therapy, and for tailoring the clinical interview to the needs of the patient. Dimensional models have been applied to several areas of pathology. Neuroticism and a variety of other traits are implicated in subclinical stress reactions. At the process level, the effects of traits such as neuroticism may be mediated by maladaptive coping strategies. Traits such as neuroticism may also have a causal effect on more severe mood and anxiety disorders, although it is likely that there are reciprocal linkages between personality and pathology. As with subclinical stress, traits may influence depression and anxiety through abnormality of cognitive processes, the clinical significance of which should be assessed in the light of the individual's trait characteristics. A further area of application is personality disorder: Dimensional models capture and clarify the principal clinical features of conditions such as schizoid and antisocial disorders. It is concluded that the dimensional approach provides a framework for the systematic understanding of clinical expressions of abnormality in personality and their implications for diagnosis and treatment.