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Liu B, Zhang TN, Knight JK, Goodwin JE. The Glucocorticoid Receptor in Cardiovascular Health and Disease. Cells 2019; 8:cells8101227. [PMID: 31601045 PMCID: PMC6829609 DOI: 10.3390/cells8101227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The glucocorticoid receptor is a member of the nuclear receptor family that controls many distinct gene networks, governing various aspects of development, metabolism, inflammation, and the stress response, as well as other key biological processes in the cardiovascular system. Recently, research in both animal models and humans has begun to unravel the profound complexity of glucocorticoid signaling and convincingly demonstrates that the glucocorticoid receptor has direct effects on the heart and vessels in vivo and in vitro. This research has contributed directly to improving therapeutic strategies in human disease. The glucocorticoid receptor is activated either by the endogenous steroid hormone cortisol or by exogenous glucocorticoids and acts within the cardiovascular system via both genomic and non-genomic pathways. Polymorphisms of the glucocorticoid receptor are also reported to influence the progress and prognosis of cardiovascular disease. In this review, we provide an update on glucocorticoid signaling and highlight the critical role of this signaling in both physiological and pathological conditions of the cardiovascular system. With increasing in-depth understanding of glucocorticoid signaling, the future is promising for the development of targeted glucocorticoid treatments and improved clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Liu
- Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
- Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
| | - Tie-Ning Zhang
- Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
- Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang 110004, China.
| | - Jessica K Knight
- Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
- Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
| | - Julie E Goodwin
- Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
- Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
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2
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Agbo L, Lambert JP. Proteomics contribution to the elucidation of the steroid hormone receptors functions. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2019; 192:105387. [PMID: 31173874 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Revised: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Steroid hormones have far-ranging biological impacts and more are continuously being uncovered. Over the last decades, proteomics approaches have become key to better understand biological processes. Due to multiple technical breakthroughs allowing for the concurrent identification and/or quantification of thousands of analytes using mass spectrometers, researchers employing proteomics tools today can now obtain truly holistic views of multiple facets of the human proteome. Here, we review how the field of proteomics has contributed to discoveries about steroid hormones, their receptors and their impact on human pathologies. In particular, the involvement of steroid receptors in cancer initiation, development, metastasis and treatment will be highlighted. Techniques at the forefront of the proteomics field will also be discussed to present how they can contribute to a better understanding of steroid hormone receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda Agbo
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Cancer Research Centre, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada; Research Center CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 4G2, Canada
| | - Jean-Philippe Lambert
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Cancer Research Centre, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada; Research Center CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec, QC G1V 4G2, Canada.
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3
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Ohno M, Negishi M. GR Utilizes a Co-Chaperone Cytoplasmic CAR Retention Protein to Form an N/C Interaction. NUCLEAR RECEPTOR SIGNALING 2018; 15:1550762918801072. [PMID: 30718983 PMCID: PMC6348740 DOI: 10.1177/1550762918801072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The N-terminal domain (NTD) of nuclear receptor superfamily members has been recently reported to regulate functions of the receptor through the interaction between the NTD and the C-terminal ligand binding domain (LBD), so-called an N/C interaction. Although this N/C interaction has been demonstrated in various nuclear receptors, eg, androgen receptor, this concept has not been observed in glucocorticoid receptor (GR). We hypothesized that GR requires its co-chaperone CCRP (cytoplasmic constitutive active/androstane receptor retention protein) to form a stable N/C interaction. This hypothesis was examined by co-immunoprecipitation assays using GR fragments overexpressing COS-1 cell lysate. Here, we demonstrated that GR undergoes the N/C interaction between the 26VMDFY30 motif in the NTD and the LBD. More importantly, co-chaperone CCRP is now found to induce this interaction. By the fact that a negative charge at Y30 disrupts this interaction, this residue, a potential phosphorylation site, was indicated to regulate the GR N/C interaction critically. Utilizing Y30F and Y30E mutants as N/C interacting and noninteracting forms of GR, respectively, a 2-dimensional blue native/sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was performed to examine whether or not the N/C interaction regulated formation of GR complexes. A cDNA microarray analysis was performed with COS-1 cells expressing Y30F or Y30E. We will present experimental data to demonstrate that CCRP is essential for GR to form the N/C interaction and will discuss its implications in GR functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marumi Ohno
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Masahiko Negishi
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
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4
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Garrido F, Pacheco M, Vargas-Martínez R, Velasco-García R, Jorge I, Serrano H, Portillo F, Vázquez J, Pajares MÁ. Identification of hepatic protein-protein interaction targets for betaine homocysteine S-methyltransferase. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0199472. [PMID: 29924862 PMCID: PMC6010280 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0199472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions are an important mechanism for the regulation of enzyme function allowing metabolite channeling, crosstalk between pathways or the introduction of post-translational modifications. Therefore, a number of high-throughput studies have been carried out to shed light on the protein networks established under different pathophysiological settings. Surprisingly, this type of information is quite limited for enzymes of intermediary metabolism such as betaine homocysteine S-methyltransferase, despite its high hepatic abundancy and its role in homocysteine metabolism. Here, we have taken advantage of two approaches, affinity purification combined with mass spectrometry and yeast two-hybrid, to further uncover the array of interactions of betaine homocysteine S-methyltransferase in normal liver of Rattus norvegicus. A total of 131 non-redundant putative interaction targets were identified, out of which 20 were selected for further validation by coimmunoprecipitation. Interaction targets validated by two different methods include: S-methylmethionine homocysteine methyltransferase or betaine homocysteine methyltransferase 2, methionine adenosyltransferases α1 and α2, cAMP-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit alpha, 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvic acid dioxygenase and aldolase b. Network analysis identified 122 nodes and 165 edges, as well as a limited number of KEGG pathways that comprise: the biosynthesis of amino acids, cysteine and methionine metabolism, the spliceosome and metabolic pathways. These results further expand the connections within the hepatic methionine cycle and suggest putative cross-talks with additional metabolic pathways that deserve additional research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Garrido
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Arturo Duperier 4, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Pacheco
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Arturo Duperier 4, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rocío Vargas-Martínez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Arturo Duperier 4, Madrid, Spain
| | - Roberto Velasco-García
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Arturo Duperier 4, Madrid, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Jorge
- Cardiovascular Proteomics Group, Spanish National Center for Cardiovascular Research (CNIC) and CIBERCV, Melchor Fernández de Almagro 3, Madrid, Spain
| | - Horacio Serrano
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - Francisco Portillo
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Arturo Duperier 4, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria La Paz (IdiPAZ), Paseo de la Castellana 261, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Arzobispo Morcillo 4, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús Vázquez
- Cardiovascular Proteomics Group, Spanish National Center for Cardiovascular Research (CNIC) and CIBERCV, Melchor Fernández de Almagro 3, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Ángeles Pajares
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Alberto Sols (CSIC-UAM), Arturo Duperier 4, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria La Paz (IdiPAZ), Paseo de la Castellana 261, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Biología Estructural y Química, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CSIC), Ramiro de Maeztu 9, Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail:
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5
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Gapp K, Bohacek J, Grossmann J, Brunner AM, Manuella F, Nanni P, Mansuy IM. Potential of Environmental Enrichment to Prevent Transgenerational Effects of Paternal Trauma. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016; 41:2749-58. [PMID: 27277118 PMCID: PMC5026744 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2016.87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Adverse experiences in early life are risk factors for the development of behavioral and physiological symptoms that can lead to psychiatric and cognitive disorders later in life. Some of these symptoms can be transmitted to the offspring, in some cases by non-genomic mechanisms involving germ cells. Using a mouse model of unpredictable maternal separation and maternal stress, we show that postnatal trauma alters coping behaviors in adverse conditions in exposed males when adult and in their adult male progeny. The behavioral changes are accompanied by increased glucocorticoid receptor (GR) expression and decreased DNA methylation of the GR promoter in the hippocampus. DNA methylation is also decreased in sperm cells of exposed males when adult. Transgenerational transmission of behavioral symptoms is prevented by paternal environmental enrichment, an effect associated with the reversal of alterations in GR gene expression and DNA methylation in the hippocampus of the male offspring. These findings highlight the influence of both negative and positive environmental factors on behavior across generations and the plasticity of the epigenome across life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Gapp
- Laboratory of Neuroepigenetics, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Brain Research Institute, Neuroscience Center Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Johannes Bohacek
- Laboratory of Neuroepigenetics, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Brain Research Institute, Neuroscience Center Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jonas Grossmann
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich (FGCZ), University Zurich/ETH Zurich, Zurich Switzerland
| | - Andrea M Brunner
- Laboratory of Neuroepigenetics, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Brain Research Institute, Neuroscience Center Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Francesca Manuella
- Laboratory of Neuroepigenetics, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Brain Research Institute, Neuroscience Center Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Paolo Nanni
- Functional Genomics Center Zurich (FGCZ), University Zurich/ETH Zurich, Zurich Switzerland
| | - Isabelle M Mansuy
- Laboratory of Neuroepigenetics, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Brain Research Institute, Neuroscience Center Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Plant N. Can a systems approach produce a better understanding of mood disorders? Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2016; 1861:3335-3344. [PMID: 27565355 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND One in twenty-five people suffer from a mood disorder. Current treatments are sub-optimal with poor patient response and uncertain modes-of-action. There is thus a need to better understand underlying mechanisms that determine mood, and how these go wrong in affective disorders. Systems biology approaches have yielded important biological discoveries for other complex diseases such as cancer, and their potential in affective disorders will be reviewed. SCOPE OF REVIEW This review will provide a general background to affective disorders, plus an outline of experimental and computational systems biology. The current application of these approaches in understanding affective disorders will be considered, and future recommendations made. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS Experimental systems biology has been applied to the study of affective disorders, especially at the genome and transcriptomic levels. However, data generation has been slowed by a lack of human tissue or suitable animal models. At present, computational systems biology has only be applied to understanding affective disorders on a few occasions. These studies provide sufficient novel biological insight to motivate further use of computational biology in this field. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE In common with many complex diseases much time and money has been spent on the generation of large-scale experimental datasets. The next step is to use the emerging computational approaches, predominantly developed in the field of oncology, to leverage the most biological insight from these datasets. This will lead to the critical breakthroughs required for more effective diagnosis, stratification and treatment of affective disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick Plant
- School of Bioscience and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Science, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK.
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Ohno M, Kanayama T, Moore R, Ray M, Negishi M. The roles of co-chaperone CCRP/DNAJC7 in Cyp2b10 gene activation and steatosis development in mouse livers. PLoS One 2014; 9:e115663. [PMID: 25542016 PMCID: PMC4277317 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0115663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytoplasmic constitutive active/androstane receptor (CAR) retention protein (CCRP and also known as DNAJC7) is a co-chaperone previously characterized to retain nuclear receptor CAR in the cytoplasm of HepG2 cells. Here we have produced CCRP knockout (KO) mice and demonstrated that CCRP regulates CAR at multiple steps in activation of the cytochrome (Cyp) 2b10 gene in liver: nuclear accumulation, RNA polymerase II recruitment and epigenetic modifications. Phenobarbital treatment greatly increased nuclear CAR accumulation in the livers of KO males as compared to those of wild type (WT) males. Despite this accumulation, phenobarbital-induced activation of the Cyp2b10 gene was significantly attenuated. In ChIP assays, a CAR/retinoid X receptor-α (RXRα) heterodimer binding to the Cyp2b10 promoter was already increased before phenobarbital treatment and further pronounced after treatment. However, RNA polymerase II was barely recruited to the promoter even after phenobarbital treatment. Histone H3K27 on the Cyp2b10 promoter was de-methylated only after phenobarbital treatment in WT but was fully de-methylated before treatment in KO males. Thus, CCRP confers phenobarbital-induced de-methylation capability to the promoter as well as the phenobarbital responsiveness of recruiting RNA polymerase II, but is not responsible for the binding between CAR and its cognate sequence, phenobarbital responsive element module. In addition, KO males developed steatotic livers and increased serum levels of total cholesterol and high density lipoprotein in response to fasting. CCRP appears to be involved in various hepatic regulations far beyond CAR-mediated drug metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marumi Ohno
- Pharmacogenetics Section, Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Tomohiko Kanayama
- Pharmacogenetics Section, Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Rick Moore
- Pharmacogenetics Section, Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Manas Ray
- Knockout Core, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Masahiko Negishi
- Pharmacogenetics Section, Reproductive and Developmental Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Lee SR, Kim HK, Song IS, Youm J, Dizon LA, Jeong SH, Ko TH, Heo HJ, Ko KS, Rhee BD, Kim N, Han J. Glucocorticoids and their receptors: insights into specific roles in mitochondria. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 112:44-54. [PMID: 23603102 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2013.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Revised: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) affect most physiological systems and are the most frequently used drugs for multiple disorders and organ transplantation. GC functions depend on a balance between circulating GC and cytoplasmic glucocorticoid receptor II (GR). Mitochondria individually enclose circular, double-stranded DNA that is expressed and replicated in response to nuclear-encoded factors imported from the cytoplasm. Fine-tuning and response to cellular demands should be coordinately regulated by the nucleus and mitochondria; thus mitochondrial-nuclear interaction is vital to optimal mitochondrial function. Elucidation of the direct and indirect effects of steroids, including GCs, on mitochondria is an important and emerging field of research. Mitochondria may also be under GC control because GRs are present in mitochondria, and glucocorticoid response elements (GREs) reside in the mitochondrial genome. Therefore, mitochondrial gene expression can be regulated by GCs via at least two different mechanisms: direct action on mitochondrial DNA and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) genes, or by an indirect effect through interaction with nuclear genes. In this review, we outline possible mechanisms of regulation of mitochondrial genes in response to GCs in view of translocation of the GR into mitochondria and the possible regulation of OXPHOS genes by GREs in the mitochondrial genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Ryul Lee
- National Research Laboratory for Mitochondrial Signaling, Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease Center, Inje University, 633-165 Gaegeum-Dong, Busanjin-Gu, 613-735 Busan, Republic of Korea
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9
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Glucocorticoid receptor-beta up-regulation and steroid resistance induction by IL-17 and IL-23 cytokine stimulation in peripheral mononuclear cells. J Clin Immunol 2012; 33:466-78. [PMID: 23160983 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-012-9828-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2012] [Accepted: 10/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Most asthmatic patients have well controlled symptoms with regular treatment, but some require much higher doses of inhaled and oral corticosteroids, or in rare cases fail to respond; these patients may present Th-17 cell infiltration and associated cytokines (IL-17A and -F) in the airways, sputum and peripheral blood. Because glucocorticoid receptor-beta (GR-beta) is associated with corticosteroid resistance, we investigated whether Th-17 associated cytokines induce steroid insensitivity in PBMCs via GR-beta up-regulation. METHODS GR-alpha, GR-beta, GILZ and IL-6 expression were analyzed in PBMCs stimulated with IL-2/IL-4, IL-17A/IL-17F and IL-23 cytokines by quantitative RT-PCR. Dexamethasone-inhibition of PHA-induced proliferation and Dexamethasone-induced apoptosis were determined by either (3)H-thymidine or CFSE-labelled cells and by Annexin-V staining and flow cytometry. RESULTS IL-17 and IL-23 cytokines significantly increased GR-beta expression. IL-2/IL-4 significantly decreased GR-alpha expression without affecting GR-beta. IL17, IL-23 and IL2 + 4 stimulations significantly hampered Dexamethasone-inhibition of proliferation (Dex EC(50) for: IL-17A + F = 251 nM; IL-23 = 435 nM; IL2 + 4 = 950 nM; Medium = 90 nM). IL2 + 4 and IL17A + F but not IL-23, significantly hampered Dexamethasone-induced apoptosis (1400 and 320 nM Dex, respectively). Dexamethasone's trans-activation of GILZ and trans-repression of NF-kB-driven IL-6 expression were both inhibited by IL2 + 4; IL17 + IL23 antagonized Dex trans-repression in PBMC from asthmatics. CONCLUSIONS GR-beta up-regulation by IL-17/IL-23 cytokines is associated with induced steroid insensitivity in PBMCs, observed as diminished Dexamethasone's effects on cell proliferation, apoptosis and gene regulation. Steroid resistance induced by IL-2/IL-4 was associated with decreased GR-alpha expression. This study supports the possibility that Th-17 lymphocytes and associated cytokines play a role in the mechanism of steroid hypo-responsiveness in severe asthmatics.
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Lee SR, Kim HK, Youm JB, Dizon LA, Song IS, Jeong SH, Seo DY, Ko KS, Rhee BD, Kim N, Han J. Non-genomic effect of glucocorticoids on cardiovascular system. Pflugers Arch 2012; 464:549-59. [PMID: 23001133 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-012-1155-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2012] [Accepted: 09/05/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) are essential steroid hormones for homeostasis, development, metabolism, and cognition and possess anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive actions. Since glucocorticoid receptor II (GR) is nearly ubiquitous, chronic activation or depletion of GCs leads to dysfunction of diverse organs, including the heart and blood vessels, resulting predominantly from changes in gene expression. Most studies, therefore, have focused on the genomic effects of GC to understand its related pathophysiological manifestations. The nongenomic effects of GCs clearly differ from well-known genomic effects, with the former responding within several minutes without the need for protein synthesis. There is increasing evidence that the nongenomic actions of GCs influence various physiological functions. To develop a GC-mediated therapeutic target for the treatment of cardiovascular disease, understanding the genomic and nongenomic effects of GC on the cardiovascular system is needed. This article reviews our current understanding of the underlying mechanisms of GCs on cardiovascular diseases and stress, as well as how nongenomic GC signaling contributes to these conditions. We suggest that manipulation of GC action based on both GC and GR metabolism, mitochondrial impact, and the action of serum- and glucocorticoid-dependent kinase 1 may provide new information with which to treat cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Ryul Lee
- National Research Laboratory for Mitochondrial Signaling, Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease Center, Inje University, 633-165 Gaegeum-Dong, Busanjin-Gu, Busan, Korea
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11
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Zhang Y, Sheng H, Qi J, Ma B, Sun J, Li S, Ni X. Glucocorticoid acts on a putative G protein-coupled receptor to rapidly regulate the activity of NMDA receptors in hippocampal neurons. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2012; 302:E747-58. [PMID: 22146309 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00302.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) have been demonstrated to act through both genomic and nongenomic mechanisms. The present study demonstrated that corticosterone rapidly suppressed the activity of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in cultured hippocampal neurons. The effect was maintained with corticosterone conjugated to bovine serum albumin and blocked by inhibition of G protein activity with intracellular GDP-β-S application. Corticosterone increased GTP-bound G(s) protein and cyclic AMP (cAMP) production, activated phospholipase Cβ(3) (PLC-β(3)), and induced inositol-1,4,5-triphosphate (IP(3)) production. Blocking PLC and the downstream cascades with PLC inhibitor, IP(3) receptor antagonist, Ca(2+) chelator, and protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors prevented the actions of corticosterone. Blocking adenylate cyclase (AC) and protein kinase A (PKA) caused a decrease in NMDA-evoked currents. Application of corticosterone partly reversed the inhibition of NMDA currents caused by blockage of AC and PKA. Intracerebroventricular administration of corticosterone significantly suppressed long-term potentiation (LTP) in the CA1 region of the hippocampus within 30 min in vivo, implicating the possibly physiological significance of rapid effects of GC on NMDA receptors. Taken together, our results indicate that GCs act on a putative G protein-coupled receptor to activate multiple signaling pathways in hippocampal neurons, and the rapid suppression of NMDA activity by GCs is dependent on PLC and downstream signaling.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Blotting, Western
- CA1 Region, Hippocampal/cytology
- CA1 Region, Hippocampal/drug effects
- CA1 Region, Hippocampal/metabolism
- Cells, Cultured
- Cyclic AMP/metabolism
- Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials
- Female
- Glucocorticoids/pharmacology
- Hippocampus/cytology
- Hippocampus/drug effects
- Hippocampus/metabolism
- Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate Receptors/metabolism
- Long-Term Potentiation/drug effects
- Male
- Neurons/drug effects
- Neurons/metabolism
- Patch-Clamp Techniques
- Pregnancy
- Radioimmunoassay
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/drug effects
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/drug effects
- Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Synapses/drug effects
- Synapses/physiology
- Type C Phospholipases/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanmin Zhang
- Department of Physiology, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
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12
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Billing AM, Revets D, Hoffmann C, Turner JD, Vernocchi S, Muller CP. Proteomic profiling of rapid non-genomic and concomitant genomic effects of acute restraint stress on rat thymocytes. J Proteomics 2012; 75:2064-79. [PMID: 22270012 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2012.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2011] [Revised: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 01/07/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In order to investigate rapid non-genomic effects of acute stress, rats were restrained for 15 min which was sufficient to activate the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis but too short to induce massive genomic effects of cortisol. Subcellular fractions of thymocytes (cytosol, nucleus, membrane) were investigated using quantitative 2D DIGE with MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometry. In total, 108 proteins with differential subcellular localizations were identified. The specificity of the changes induced by psychological stress was reflected by the prominent modulation of proteins involved in the HPA and sympathoadrenal medullar (SAM) axis such as HMGB1 and NHERF1. Intracellular trafficking was characterized by a dominant protein exodus from the cytosol. Real translocation was observed for 9 proteins with 6 that shuttled from the cytosol to the nucleus (HYOU1, HNRPF, HNRPC, STRAP, PSA1, PPA1) and 3 from the nucleus to the cytosol (HMGB1, NHERF1, PSMA1). Proteins showing subcellular reshuffling were largely involved in transcription and translation processes (39 of 108) with a significant enrichment of RNA splicing factors. Bioinformatics analysis revealed significant enrichment for protein kinase A and 14-3-3 signaling, probably reflecting real non-genomic effects. This is the first study investigating rapid effects of stress-induced HPA activation in vivo at the proteome level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja M Billing
- Institute of Immunology, Centre de Recherche Public de la Santé/National Public Health Laboratory, 20A, rue Auguste Lumière, L-1950 Luxembourg, Luxembourg
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Abstract
Classically, DIGE is carried out on the basis of two-dimensional (2D) IEF/SDS PAGE. This allows comparative analyses of large protein sets. However, 2D IEF/SDS PAGE only poorly resolves hydrophobic proteins and is not compatible with native protein characterizations. Blue native PAGE represents a powerful alternative. Combined with CyDye labeling, blue native DIGE offers several useful applications like quantitative comparison of protein complexes of related protein fractions. Here we present a protocol for fluorophore labeling of native protein fractions for separation by blue native PAGE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Peters
- Institute for Plant Genetics, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
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14
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Teleost fish larvae adapt to dietary arachidonic acid supply through modulation of the expression of lipid metabolism and stress response genes. Br J Nutr 2011; 108:864-74. [PMID: 22172151 DOI: 10.1017/s0007114511006143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Dietary fatty acid supply can affect stress response in fish during early development. Although knowledge on the mechanisms involved in fatty acid regulation of stress tolerance is scarce, it has often been hypothesised that eicosanoid profiles can influence cortisol production. Genomic cortisol actions are mediated by cytosolic receptors which may respond to cellular fatty acid signalling. An experiment was designed to test the effects of feeding gilthead sea-bream larvae with four microdiets, containing graded arachidonic acid (ARA) levels (0·4, 0·8, 1·5 and 3·0 %), on the expression of genes involved in stress response (steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, glucocorticoid receptor and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase), lipid and, particularly, eicosanoid metabolism (hormone-sensitive lipase, PPARα, phospholipase A2, cyclo-oxygenase-2 and 5-lipoxygenase), as determined by real-time quantitative PCR. Fish fatty acid phenotypes reflected dietary fatty acid profiles. Growth performance, survival after acute stress and similar whole-body basal cortisol levels suggested that sea-bream larvae could tolerate a wide range of dietary ARA levels. Transcription of all genes analysed was significantly reduced at dietary ARA levels above 0·4 %. Nonetheless, despite practical suppression of phospholipase A2 transcription, higher leukotriene B4 levels were detected in larvae fed 3·0 % ARA, whereas a similar trend was observed regarding PGE2 production. The present study demonstrates that adaptation to a wide range of dietary ARA levels in gilthead sea-bream larvae involves the modulation of the expression of genes related to eicosanoid synthesis, lipid metabolism and stress response. The roles of ARA, other polyunsaturates and eicosanoids as signals in this process are discussed.
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15
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Abstract
Mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids are steroid hormones that are released by the adrenal cortex in response to stress and hydromineral imbalance. Historically, adrenocorticosteroid actions are attributed to effects on gene transcription. More recently, however, it has become clear that genome-independent pathways represent an important facet of adrenal steroid actions. These hormones exert nongenomic effects throughout the body, although a significant portion of their actions are specific to the central nervous system. These actions are mediated by a variety of signalling pathways, and lead to physiologically meaningful events in vitro and in vivo. We review the nongenomic effects of adrenal steroids in the central nervous system at the levels of behaviour, neural system activity, individual neurone activity and subcellular signalling activity. A clearer understanding of adrenal steroid activity in the central nervous system will lead to a better ability to treat human disease as well as reduce the side-effects of the steroid treatments already in use.
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Affiliation(s)
- N K Evanson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cincinnati, OH 45237, USA.
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16
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Nalvarte I, Schwend T, Gustafsson JA. Proteomics analysis of the estrogen receptor alpha receptosome. Mol Cell Proteomics 2010; 9:1411-22. [PMID: 20348541 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m900457-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The estrogen receptors (ERs) are ligand-dependent transcription factors that activate transcription by binding to estrogen response elements. Estrogen-mediated effects are tissue- and cell type-specific, determined by the cofactor recruitment to the ERs among other factors. To understand these differences in estrogen action, it is important to identify the various compositions of the ER complexes (ER receptosomes). In this report, we describe a fast and efficient method for the isolation of the ERalpha receptosome for proteomics analysis. Using immobilized estrogen response element on a Sepharose column in combination with two-dimensional electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF MS, significant amounts of proteins could be isolated and identified. Differences in ERalpha complex composition with the ER ligands 17beta-estradiol, 4-hydroxytamoxifen, and ICI-182,780 could also be observed. Thus, this approach provides an easy and relevant way of identifying ERalpha cofactor and transcription factor recruitment under different conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Nalvarte
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institute, SE-14183 Huddinge, Sweden.
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17
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Abstract
Receptors represent an abundant class of integral membrane proteins that transmit information on various types of signals within the cell. Assemblages of receptors and their interacting proteins (receptor complexes) have emerged as important units of signal transduction for various types of receptors including G protein coupled, ligand-gated ion channel, and receptor tyrosine kinase. This review aims to summarize the major approaches and findings of receptor proteomics. Isolation and characterization of receptor complexes from cells has become common using the methods of immunoaffinity-, ligand-, and tag-based chromatography followed by MS for the analysis of enriched receptor preparations. In addition, tools such as stable isotope labeling have contributed to understanding quantitative properties and PTMs to receptors and their interacting proteins. As data from studies on receptor-protein interactions considerably expands, complementary approaches such as bioinformatics and computational biology will undoubtedly play a significant role in defining cellular and network functions for various types of receptor complexes. Findings from receptor proteomics may also shed light on the mechanism of action for pharmacological drugs and can be of value in understanding molecular pathologies of disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Kabbani
- Institut Jacques Monod, CNRS/Universités Paris 6, Paris, France.
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18
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Wittig I, Schägger H. Features and applications of blue-native and clear-native electrophoresis. Proteomics 2008; 8:3974-90. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200800017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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19
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Weber M, Wehling M, Lösel R. Proteins interact with the cytosolic mineralocorticoid receptor depending on the ligand. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2008; 295:H361-5. [DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00825.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Steroid receptors belonging to the superfamily of nuclear receptors do not exist as single monomeric proteins but mediate their effects by the interaction with numerous other proteins, e.g., cofactors for transcription, but also other proteins involved in cellular signaling. This interaction may be ligand dependent, which explains the differential effects of receptor ligands. Whereas some receptors, e.g., the estrogen receptor, have been studied in great detail, much less is known about proteins interacting with the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR). In this study, we aimed to identify interacting proteins using a proteomics approach involving tagged receptor constructs. After affinity isolation of MR complexes, blue native electrophoresis revealed the presence of several populations of MR complexes differing in size and composition. During the identification of interacting proteins, various heat shock proteins but also several previously undescribed potential interactors were found, including 14-3-3-ε. We also demonstrate here that the cytosolic MR in the presence of detergent interacts in a ligand-selective manner with glucose-regulated protein 78 and propionyl-CoA carboxylase-β precursor, which are found in the unliganded or aldosterone-containing complex but not with spironolactone.
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20
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Dewint P, Gossye V, De Bosscher K, Vanden Berghe W, Van Beneden K, Deforce D, Van Calenbergh S, Müller-Ladner U, Vander Cruyssen B, Verbruggen G, Haegeman G, Elewaut D. A plant-derived ligand favoring monomeric glucocorticoid receptor conformation with impaired transactivation potential attenuates collagen-induced arthritis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:2608-15. [PMID: 18250472 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.4.2608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is a transcription factor regulating its target genes either positively, through direct binding to the promoter of target genes, or negatively by the interference with the activity of transcription factors involved in proinflammatory gene expression. The well-known adverse effects of glucocorticoids are believed to be mainly caused by their GR-mediated gene-activating properties. Although dimerization of GR is thought to be essential for gene-activating properties, no compound has yet been described which selectively imposes GR monomer formation and interference with other transcription factors. In the present study, we report on a GR-binding, plant-derived compound with marked dissociative properties in rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes, which are important effector cells in inflammation and matrix degradation in rheumatoid arthritis. In addition, these findings could be extended in vivo in murine collagen-induced arthritis, in which joint inflammation was markedly inhibited without inducing hyperinsulinemia. Therefore, we conclude that GR monomers are sufficient for inhibition of inflammation in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pieter Dewint
- Department of Rheumatology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, Ghent, Belgium
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21
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Yang W, Steen H, Freeman MR. Proteomic approaches to the analysis of multiprotein signaling complexes. Proteomics 2008; 8:832-51. [PMID: 18297654 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200700650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Signal transduction is one of the most active fields in modern biomedical research. Increasing evidence has shown that signaling proteins associate with each other in characteristic ways to form large signaling complexes. These diverse structures operate to boost signaling efficiency, ensure specificity and increase sensitivity of the biochemical circuitry. Traditional methods of protein analysis are inadequate to fully characterize and understand these structures, which are intricate, contain many components and are highly dynamic. Instead, proteomics technologies are currently being applied to investigate the nature and composition of multimeric signaling complexes. This review presents commonly used and potential proteomic methods of analyzing diverse protein complexes along with a discussion and a brief evaluation of alternative approaches. Challenges associated with proteomic analysis of signaling complexes are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Yang
- The Urological Diseases Research Center, Department of Urology, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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22
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Asadi A, Hedman E, Widén C, Zilliacus J, Gustafsson JÅ, Wikström AC. FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 interacts with the glucocorticoid receptor complex and affects glucocorticoid dependent signaling. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 368:569-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.01.146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2008] [Accepted: 01/18/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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23
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Intracellular complexes of the beta2 subunit of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor in brain identified by proteomics. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:20570-5. [PMID: 18077321 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0710314104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Nicotine acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) comprise a family of ligand-gated channels widely expressed in the mammalian brain. The beta2 subunit is an abundant protein subunit critically involved in the cognitive and behavioral properties of nicotine as well as in the mechanisms of nicotine addiction. In this work, we used matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-TOF MS/MS) to uncover protein interactions of the intracellular loop of the beta2 subunit and components of immunoprecipitated beta2-nAChR complexes from mouse brain. Using the beta2-knockout mouse to exclude nonspecific binding to the beta2 antibody, we identify 21 nAChR-interacting proteins (NIPs) expressed in brain. Western blot analysis confirmed the association between the beta2 subunit and candidate NIPs. Based on their functional profiles, the hypothesis is suggested that the identified NIPs can regulate the trafficking and signaling of the beta2-nAChR. Interactions of the beta2 subunit with NIPs such as G protein alpha, G protein-regulated inducer of neurite outgrowth 1, and G protein-activated K(+) channel 1 suggest a link between nAChRs and cellular G protein pathways. These findings reveal intracellular interactions of the beta2 subunit and may contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms of nAChR signaling and trafficking in neurons.
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Billing AM, Fack F, Renaut J, Olinger CM, Schote AB, Turner JD, Muller CP. Proteomic analysis of the cortisol-mediated stress response in THP-1 monocytes using DIGE technology. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2007; 42:1433-1444. [PMID: 17960574 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The glucocorticoid (GC) cortisol, the main mediator of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis has many implications in metabolism, stress response and the immune system. Its function is mediated via binding to the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a member of the superfamily of ligand-activated nuclear hormone receptors. The activity of the ligated GR results from its binding as a transcription factor to glucocorticoid response elements (GREs). Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis with DIGE (fluorescence difference gel electrophoresis) technology was applied to study the effects of cortisol on the human THP-1 monocytic cell line. A total of 28 cortisol-modulated proteins were identified belonging to five functional groups: cytoskeleton (8), chaperones (9), immune response (4), metabolism (3) and transcription/translation (4). Their corresponding genes were screened for putative GREs in their + 10 kb/- 0.2 kb promoter regions including all alternative promoters available within the Database for Transcription Start Sites (DBTSS). FKBP51, known to be induced by cortisol, was identified as the strongest differentially expressed protein, and contains the highest number of strict GREs. Genomic analysis of five alternative FKBP5 promoter regions suggests GC inducibility of all transcripts. Additionally, proteomics (2D DIGE and 2D immunoblotting) revealed the existence of several FKBP51 isoforms, which were not previously described. To our knowledge this is the first proteomic study that addresses the effects of cortisol on immune cells. FKBP51 isoforms found on the gel map were linked to alternative promoter usage on the genetic level, successfully correlating both the specific proteomic and genomic findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja M Billing
- Institute of Immunology, National Public Health Laboratory, 20A, rue Auguste Lumière, L-1950 Luxembourg, Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
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25
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Wang G, Wu WW, Pisitkun T, Hoffert JD, Knepper MA, Shen RF. Automated quantification tool for high-throughput proteomics using stable isotope labeling and LC-MSn. Anal Chem 2007; 78:5752-61. [PMID: 16906720 DOI: 10.1021/ac060611v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
LC-MSn has become a popular option for high-throughput quantitative proteomics, thanks to the availability of stable-isotope labeling reagents. However, the vast quantity of data generated from LC-MSn continues to make the postacquisition quantification analyses challenging, especially in experiments involving multiple samples per experimental condition. To facilitate data analysis, we developed a computer program, QUIL, for automated protein quantification. QUIL accounts for the dynamic nature of spectral background and subtracts this background accordingly during ion chromatogram reconstruction. For elution profile identification, QUIL minimizes the inclusion of coeluted neighbor peaks, yet tolerates imperfect peak shapes. Outlier-resistant methods have been implemented for better protein ratio estimation. The utility of QUIL was validated by quantitative analyses of a standard protein as well as complex protein mixtures, which were labeled with cICAT or 18O and analyzed using LCQ, LTQ, or FT-ICR instruments. For samples that no prior knowledge of relative protein quantities was available, Western blotting was performed for confirmation. For the standard protein, the coefficient of variation (CV) of peptide ratio estimation was 6%. For complex mixtures, the median CV for protein ratio calculations was less than 10%. Computed protein abundance ratios exhibited a relatively high degree of correlation with those obtained from Western blot analyses. Compared with a widely used commercial software tool, QUIL showed improvement in ion chromatogram construction and peak integration and significantly reduced relative errors in abundance ratio assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanghui Wang
- Proteomics Core Facility and Laboratory of Kidney and Electrolyte Metabolism, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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26
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Vercauteren FGG, Arckens L, Quirion R. Applications and current challenges of proteomic approaches, focusing on two-dimensional electrophoresis. Amino Acids 2006; 33:405-14. [PMID: 17136510 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-006-0460-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2006] [Accepted: 10/10/2006] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Since the formulation of the concept of "proteomics" in 1995, a plethora of proteomic technologies have been developed in order to study proteomes of tissues, cells and organelles. The powerful new technologies enabled by proteomic approaches have lead to the application of these methods to an exponentially increasing variety of biological questions for highly complex protein mixtures. Continuous technical optimization allows for an ever-increasing sensitivity of proteomic techniques. In this review, a brief overview of currently available proteomic techniques and their applications is given, followed by a more detailed description of advantages and technical challenges of two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE). Some solutions to circumvent currently encountered technical difficulties for 2-DE analyses are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- F G G Vercauteren
- Douglas Hospital Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
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