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Lei R, Yang C, Zhu T, Zhu X, Zhu Z, Cui H, Pei H, Li J, Mao Y, Lan C. Multifunctional cyclic biomimetic peptides: Self-assembling nanotubes for effective treatment of sepsis. Int J Biol Macromol 2025; 288:138522. [PMID: 39672431 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.138522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2024] [Revised: 11/18/2024] [Accepted: 12/05/2024] [Indexed: 12/15/2024]
Abstract
Antibiotic abuse has led to an increasingly serious risk of antimicrobial resistance, developing alternative antimicrobials to combat this alarming issue is urgently needed. Rhesus theta defensin-1 (RTD-1) is a theta-defensin contributing to broad-spectrum bactericidal activity via the mechanisms of membrane perturbation. Intriguingly, human defensin-6 (HD6), an enteric defensin secreted by Paneth cells without direct bactericidal effect, could self-assembled into fibrous networks to trap enteric pathogens for assistance of innate immunity. The direct bactericidal action of RTD-1 and the bacterial trapping of HD6 inspire a promising antimicrobial paradigm for unique antibacterial strategies. In this study, we utilized the principle of alternating arrangement of D- and L-amino acids in cyclic peptides, which endows them with the potential to self-assemble into nanotubes, mimic the antimicrobial processes of RTD-1 and HD6. We designed and synthesized five cyclic biomimetic peptides (CBPs), among these biomimetics, CBP-4, which possessed a nanotube-like structure, demonstrated the ability to directly and rapidly disrupt the cell membranes of Gram-positive S. aureus and MRSA, while also targeting the surfaces of Gram-negative E. coil using its nanofibrous network to capture bacteria, preventing invasion and migration, and indirectly killing the bacteria. Moreover, CBP-4 eliminated pathogens, inhibited excessive inflammatory responses caused by infections, and maintained immune system homeostasis in septic mice. By fully emulating the antimicrobial mechanisms of both RTD-1 and HD6, CBP-4 showed promising potential for anti-infectious therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruyi Lei
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China.
| | - Chujun Yang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China; Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China
| | - Tao Zhu
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Xingqiang Zhu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China
| | - Zhiqiang Zhu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China
| | - Hongwei Cui
- Department of General ICU, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China
| | - Hui Pei
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China
| | - Jiye Li
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China
| | - Yujing Mao
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China
| | - Chao Lan
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China.
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2
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Wei F, Qi H, Li B, Cai R, Liao M, Li P, Zhan X, Zhu T, Xu H, Hu X, Lu JR, Zhou F. Probing the relevance of synergistic lipid membrane disruption to the eye irritation of binary mixed nonionic surfactants. J Colloid Interface Sci 2025; 678:854-863. [PMID: 39321641 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2024.09.159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2024] [Revised: 08/27/2024] [Accepted: 09/15/2024] [Indexed: 09/27/2024]
Abstract
Nonionic surfactant aerosols play a crucial role in many industries, but they can cause acute irritation to users' eyes during spraying. This cytotoxic process is associated with corneal cell necrosis causing cell membrane disruption. Industrial grade surfactants are typically polydisperse mixtures described by their nominal chemical structure but how the polydispersity affects their interactions with cell membrane, remains largely unexplored. A better understanding could benefit product formulations to maximise their efficiency whilst minimising their toxicity to the users. In this study, poly-oxyethylene glycol monododecyl ethers (C12E4, C12E23) were used to form ideal binary surfactant mixtures. The cytotoxicities of mono and polydispersed surfactants towards human corneal epithelial cells were examined, followed by a series of biophysical characterisations of interactions between surfactants and model cell membranes. Notably, to probe the journey of individual C12E4 and C12E23 surfactant molecules across the cell membrane from a binary surfactant mixture, "two-colour" neutron reflection measurements were achieved via Hydrogen/Deuterium substitution. The relative distributions of C12E4 and C12E23 across cell membranes and their nanostructural conformations revealed a synergistic membrane-lytic ability initiated by surfactant mixing, with the more hydrophobic C12E4 exhibiting stronger membrane binding potency than the hydrophilic C12E23. The exact molar ratio of C12E4 against C12E23 in the mixture determined how the mixed surfactant interacted with the cell membrane, and how the process directly impacted cytotoxicity and eye irritation. Thus, the cytotoxicity of polydisperse surfactants is not the same as monodisperse surfactant of the same average structure. This work provides a useful basis for the assessment of surfactant mixing by balancing their efficiency and toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.18, Tianshui Middle Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, China; State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing and Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, China University of Petroleum (East China), 66 Changjiang West Road, Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Hao Qi
- Shandong Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Green Manufacturing at Yantai, Yantai 264006, Shandong, China
| | - Bin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.18, Tianshui Middle Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, China; Shandong Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Green Manufacturing at Yantai, Yantai 264006, Shandong, China
| | - Rongsheng Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.18, Tianshui Middle Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, China
| | - Mingrui Liao
- Biological Physics Group, Department of Physics and Astronomy, School of Natural Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Peixun Li
- STFC ISIS Facility, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Didcot OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Xiaozhi Zhan
- Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Spallation Neutron Source Science Center, Dongguan 523803, China
| | - Tao Zhu
- Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Spallation Neutron Source Science Center, Dongguan 523803, China
| | - Hai Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing and Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, China University of Petroleum (East China), 66 Changjiang West Road, Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Xuzhi Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.18, Tianshui Middle Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, China; Shandong Laboratory of Advanced Materials and Green Manufacturing at Yantai, Yantai 264006, Shandong, China.
| | - Jian Ren Lu
- Biological Physics Group, Department of Physics and Astronomy, School of Natural Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Feng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No.18, Tianshui Middle Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, China.
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3
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Liao M, Gong H, Shen K, Wang Z, Li R, Campana M, Hu X, Lu JR. Unlocking roles of cationic and aromatic residues in peptide amphiphiles in treating drug-resistant gram-positive pathogens. J Colloid Interface Sci 2024; 672:209-223. [PMID: 38838629 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2024.05.188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) is a rising threat to global health because the number of essential antibiotics used for treating MDR infections is increasingly compromised. In this work we report a group of new amphiphilic peptides (AMPs) derived from the well-studied G3 (G(IIKK)3I-NH2) to fight infections from Gram-positive bacteria including susceptible Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), focusing on membrane interactions. Time-dependent killing experiments revealed that substitutions of II by WW (GWK), II by FF (GFK) and KK by RR (GIR) resulted in improved bactericidal efficiencies compared to G3 (GIK) on both S. aureus and MRSA, with the order of GWK > GIR > GFK > GIK. Electronic microscopy imaging revealed structural disruptions of AMP binding to bacterial cell walls. Fluorescence assays including AMP binding to anionic lipoteichoic acids (LTA) in cell-free and cell systems indicated concentration and time-dependent membrane destabilization associated with bacterial killing. Furthermore, AMP's binding to anionic plasma membrane via similar fluorescence assays revealed a different extent of membrane depolarization and leakage. These observations were supported by the penetration of AMPs into the LTA barrier and the subsequent structural compromise to the cytoplasmic membrane as revealed from SANS (small angle neutron scattering). Both experiments and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations revealed that GWK and GIR could make the membrane more rigid but less effective in diffusive efficiency than GIK and GFK through forming intramembrane peptide nanoaggregates associated with hydrophobic mismatch and formation of fluidic and rigid patches. The reported peptide-aggregate-induced phase-separation emerged as a crucial factor in accelerated membrane disintegration and fast bacterial killing. This work has demonstrated the importance of membrane interactions to the development of more effective AMPs and the relevance of the approaches as reported in assisting this area of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingrui Liao
- Biological Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics and Astronomy, School of Natural Science, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Haoning Gong
- Biological Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics and Astronomy, School of Natural Science, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Kangcheng Shen
- Biological Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics and Astronomy, School of Natural Science, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Ziwei Wang
- National Graphene Institute, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Renzhi Li
- Department of Materials, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Mario Campana
- ISIS Pulsed Neutron & Muon Source, STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Didcot OX11 0QX, UK
| | - Xuzhi Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Solid Lubrication, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, PR China.
| | - Jian R Lu
- Biological Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics and Astronomy, School of Natural Science, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.
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Wang T, Tan P, Tang Q, Zhou C, Ding Y, Xu S, Song M, Fu H, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Bai Y, Sun Z, Ma X. Phage-displayed heptapeptide sequence conjugation significantly improves the specific targeting ability of antimicrobial peptides against Staphylococcus aureus. MLIFE 2024; 3:251-268. [PMID: 38948143 PMCID: PMC11211671 DOI: 10.1002/mlf2.12123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
Broad-spectrum antibacterial drugs often lack specificity, leading to indiscriminate bactericidal activity, which can disrupt the normal microbial balance of the host flora and cause unnecessary cytotoxicity during systemic administration. In this study, we constructed a specifically targeted antimicrobial peptide against Staphylococcus aureus by introducing a phage-displayed peptide onto a broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptide and explored its structure-function relationship through one-factor modification. SFK2 obtained by screening based on the selectivity index and the targeting index showed specific killing ability against S. aureus. Moreover, SFK2 showed excellent biocompatibility in mice and piglet, and demonstrated significant therapeutic efficacy against S. aureus infection. In conclusion, our screening of phage-derived heptapeptides effectively enhances the specific bactericidal ability of the antimicrobial peptides against S. aureus, providing a theoretical basis for developing targeted antimicrobial peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding, College of Animal Science and TechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
- Luoyang Key Laboratory of Animal Genetic and Breeding, College of Animal ScienceHenan University of Science and TechnologyLuoyangChina
| | - Peng Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding, College of Animal Science and TechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Qi Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding, College of Animal Science and TechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Chenlong Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding, College of Animal Science and TechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Yakun Ding
- Key Laboratory of Innovative Utilization of Indigenous Cattle and Sheep Germplasm Resources (Co‐construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsZhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouChina
| | - Shenrui Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding, College of Animal Science and TechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Mengda Song
- Key Laboratory of Innovative Utilization of Indigenous Cattle and Sheep Germplasm Resources (Co‐construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsZhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouChina
| | - Huiyang Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding, College of Animal Science and TechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Yucheng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding, College of Animal Science and TechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Xiaohui Zhang
- Luoyang Key Laboratory of Animal Genetic and Breeding, College of Animal ScienceHenan University of Science and TechnologyLuoyangChina
| | - Yueyu Bai
- Key Laboratory of Innovative Utilization of Indigenous Cattle and Sheep Germplasm Resources (Co‐construction by Ministry and Province), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural AffairsZhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouChina
- Animal Health Supervision in Henan ProvinceZhengzhouChina
| | - Zhihong Sun
- Laboratory for Bio‐Feed and Molecular Nutrition, Department of Animal Science and TechnologySouthwest UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Xi Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feeding, College of Animal Science and TechnologyChina Agricultural UniversityBeijingChina
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Wu Y, Liu P, Mehrjou B, Chu PK. Interdisciplinary-Inspired Smart Antibacterial Materials and Their Biomedical Applications. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2305940. [PMID: 37469232 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202305940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
The discovery of antibiotics has saved millions of lives, but the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria has become another problem in modern medicine. To avoid or reduce the overuse of antibiotics in antibacterial treatments, stimuli-responsive materials, pathogen-targeting nanoparticles, immunogenic nano-toxoids, and biomimetic materials are being developed to make sterilization better and smarter than conventional therapies. The common goal of smart antibacterial materials (SAMs) is to increase the antibiotic efficacy or function via an antibacterial mechanism different from that of antibiotics in order to increase the antibacterial and biological properties while reducing the risk of drug resistance. The research and development of SAMs are increasingly interdisciplinary because new designs require the knowledge of different fields and input/collaboration from scientists in different fields. A good understanding of energy conversion in materials, physiological characteristics in cells and bacteria, and bactericidal structures and components in nature are expected to promote the development of SAMs. In this review, the importance of multidisciplinary insights for SAMs is emphasized, and the latest advances in SAMs are categorized and discussed according to the pertinent disciplines including materials science, physiology, and biomimicry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzheng Wu
- Department of Physics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, 999077, China
| | - Pei Liu
- Department of Physics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, 999077, China
| | - Babak Mehrjou
- Department of Physics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, 999077, China
| | - Paul K Chu
- Department of Physics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, 999077, China
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6
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Wu M, Kong X, Li H, Ji Y, He S, Shi Y, Hu H. Cyclic peptide conjugated photosensitizer for targeted phototheranostics of gram-negative bacterial infection. Bioorg Chem 2024; 145:107203. [PMID: 38377817 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2024.107203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising alternative to antibiotics for eradicating pathogenic bacterial infections. It holds advantage of not inducing antimicrobial resistance but is limited for the treatment of gram-negative bacterial infection due to the lack of photosensitizer (PS) capable of targeted permeating the outer membrane (OM) of gram-negative bacteria. To facilitate the targeted permeability of PS, cyclic polymyxin b nonapeptide that can specifically bind to the lipopolysaccharide on OM, is conjugated to an FDA approved PS chlorin e6 via variable linkers. Based on structure to activity study, C6pCe6 with aminohexanoic linker and P2pCe6 with amino-3, 6-dioxaoctanoic linker are identified to preferentially image gram-negative bacteria. These two conjugates also exhibit improved aqueous dispersity and enhanced ROS generation, consequently enabled their selective bactericidal activities against gram-negative bacteria upon 660 nm light irradiation. The effective photobactericidal ability of P2pCe6 is further validated on P. aeruginosa infected G. mellonella. Moreover, it is demonstrated to effectively treat the P. aeruginosa infection and accelerate the healing process at the wound site of mouse. Owing to the light irradiation triggered targeted imaging and enhanced bactericidal capacities, P2pCe6 hold great potential to serve as a potent PS for mediating the phototheranostics of gram-negative bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minghao Wu
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China; School of Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Xiangxiang Kong
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China; School of Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Huang Li
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China; School of Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Yajing Ji
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China; School of Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Shipeng He
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Yejiao Shi
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China.
| | - Honggang Hu
- School of Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China.
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Hu X, Liao M, Ding K, Wang J, Xu H, Tao K, Zhou F, Lu JR. Neutron reflection and scattering in characterising peptide assemblies. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2023; 322:103033. [PMID: 37931380 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2023.103033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
Self-assemblies of de novo designed short peptides at interface and in bulk solution provide potential platforms for developing applications in many medical and technological areas. However, characterising how bioinspired supramolecular nanostructures evolve with dynamic self-assembling processes and respond to different stimuli remains challenging. Neutron scattering technologies including small angle neutron scattering (SANS) and neutron reflection (NR) can be advantageous and complementary to other state-of-the-art techniques in tracing structural changes under different conditions. With more neutron sources now available, SANS and NR are becoming increasingly popular in studying self-assembling processes of diverse peptide and protein systems, but the difficulty in experimental manipulation and data analysis can deter beginners. This review will introduce the basic theory, general experimental setup and data analysis of SANS and NR, followed by provision of their applications in characterising interfacial and solution self-assemblies of representative peptides and proteins. SANS and NR are remarkably effective in determining the morphological features self-assembled short peptides, especially size and shape transitions as a result of either sequence changes or in response to environmental stimuli, demonstrating the unique capability of NR and SANS in unravelling the interactive processes. These examples highlight the potential of NR and SANS in supporting the development of novel short peptides and proteins as biopharmaceutical candidates in the fight against many diseases and infections that share common features of membrane interactive processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuzhi Hu
- Biological Physics Group, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK.; Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Tianshui Middle Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, China
| | - Mingrui Liao
- Biological Physics Group, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Ke Ding
- Biological Physics Group, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Jiqian Wang
- Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), 66 Changjiang West Road, Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Hai Xu
- Centre for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), 66 Changjiang West Road, Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Kai Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology of Zhejiang Province, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang-Israel Joint Laboratory of Self-Assembling Functional Materials, ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Centre, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311215, China
| | - Feng Zhou
- Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Tianshui Middle Road, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, China
| | - Jian R Lu
- Biological Physics Group, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK..
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