Cloning of a novel G-protein-coupled receptor from the sea anemone nervous system

Sequence and expression of four coral G protein-coupled receptors distinct from all classifiable members of the rhodopsin family

A measure of the functional importance of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) as signalling molecules is that over seven hundred have been cloned and identified in the human genome alone. Yet few have been characterized in the lower metazoan phyla, especially in the phylum Cnidaria which is well positioned phylogenetically for tracing the early evolution of GPCRs owing to their possession of the first-evolved nervous systems. We report here the cloning and characterization of four novel rhodopsin-like GPCR cDNAs from the staghorn coral Acropora millepora that share significant similarity with each other but not with the majority of other members of the rhodopsin alpha subfamily. The deduced proteins lack many of the conserved residues and motifs that form the signature of the different groups of alpha rhodopsin receptors. Maximum likelihood phylogenetic analysis likewise implies that the coral receptors do not have a simple or close relationship with any of the major groups within the alpha rhodopsin subfamily. In situ hybridization revealed transcripts in endodermal cells of planula larvae of all ages and in post-settlement polyps. These GPCRs appear to belong to a alpha rhodopsin-like group unique to corals. Comparisons with other cnidarian GPCRs suggest also that GPCRs diverged early in metazoan evolution.

Hormonal signaling in cnidarians: do we understand the pathways well enough to know whether they are being disrupted?

Cnidarians occupy a key evolutionary position as basal metazoans and are ecologically important as predators, prey and structure-builders. Bioregulatory molecules (e.g., amines, peptides and steroids) have been identified in cnidarians, but cnidarian signaling pathways remain poorly characterized. Cnidarians, especially hydras, are regularly used in toxicity testing, but few studies have used cnidarians in explicit testing for signal disruption. Sublethal endpoints developed in cnidarians include budding, regeneration, gametogenesis, mucus production and larval metamorphosis. Cnidarian genomic databases, microarrays and other molecular tools are increasingly facilitating mechanistic investigation of signaling pathways and signal disruption. Elucidation of cnidarian signaling processes in a comparative context can provide insight into the evolution and diversification of metazoan bioregulation. Characterizing signaling and signal disruption in cnidarians may also provide unique opportunities for evaluating risk to valuable marine resources, such as coral reefs.

Identification of a novel aminergic-like G protein-coupled receptor in the cnidarian Renilla koellikeri

Biogenic amines exert various physiological effects in cnidarians, but the receptors involved in these responses are not known. We have cloned a novel G protein-coupled receptor cDNA from an anthozoan, the sea pansy Renilla koellikeri, that shows homology to mammalian catecholamine receptors and, to a lesser extent, to peptidergic receptors. This putative receptor, named Ren2, has a DRC pattern that replaces the well-conserved DRY motif on the cytoplasmic side of the transmembrane III and lacks the cysteine residues usually found in the second extracellular loop and C-terminus tail. Both the second extracellular loop and the N-terminal tail were seen to be short (six and three amino acids, respectively). Northern blot analysis suggests that the receptor gene codes for two transcripts. Localization of these transcripts by in situ hybridization demonstrated abundant expression in the epithelium of the pharyngeal wall, the oral disk and tentacles as well as in the endodermal epithelium lining the gastrovascular cavities.

A new G protein-coupled receptor from a primitive metazoan shows homology with vertebrate aminergic receptors and displays constitutive activity in mammalian cells

Biogenic amine receptors mediate wide-ranging hormonal and modulatory functions in vertebrates, but are largely unknown in primitive invertebrates. In a representative of the most basal multicellular animals possessing a nervous system, the cnidarian Renilla koellikeri, aminergic-like receptors were previously characterized pharmacologically and found to engender control of the animal's bioluminescent and peristaltic reactions. Using degenerate oligonucleotides in a RT-PCR strategy, we obtained a full-length cDNA encoding a polypeptide with typical G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) characteristics and which displayed a significant degree of sequence similarity (up to 45%) to biogenic amine receptors, particularly dopamine and adrenergic receptors. The new receptor, named Ren1, did not resemble any one specific type of amine GPCR and thus could not be identified on the basis of sequence. Ren1 was expressed transiently and stably in cultured mammalian cells, as demonstrated by immunocytochemistry and western blotting. Functional analysis of transfected HEK293, LTK- and COS-7 cells, based on both cAMP and Ca2+ signalling assays, revealed that Ren1 was not activated by any of the known biogenic amines tested and several related metabolites. The results indicated, however, that cells stably expressing Ren1 contained, on average, an 11-fold higher level of cAMP than the controls, in the absence of agonist stimulation. The high basal cAMP levels were shown to be specific for Ren1 and to vary proportionally with the level of Ren1 expressed in the transfected cells. Taken together, the data suggested that Ren1 was expressed as a constitutively active receptor. Its identification provides a basis for examination of the early evolutionary emergence of GPCRs and their functional properties.

G Protein-Coupled Receptors in Invertebrates: A State of the Art

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute one of the largest and most ancient superfamilies of membrane-spanning proteins. We focus on neuropeptide GPCRs, in particular on those of invertebrates. In general, such receptors mediate the responses of signaling molecules that constitute the highest hierarchical position in the regulation of physiological processes. Until recently, only a few of these receptors were identified in invertebrates. However, the availability of a plethora of genomic information has boosted the discovery of novel members in several invertebrate species, such as Drosophila, in which 18 neuropeptide GPCRs have been characterized. The finalization of genomic projects in other invertebrates will lead to a similar expansion of GPCR understanding. Many new insights regarding neuropeptide regulation have followed from the discovery of their cognate receptors. Furthermore, information on GPCR signaling is still fragmentary and the elucidation of these pathways in model insects such as Drosophila will lead to further insights in other species, including mammals. In this review we present the current status of what is known about invertebrate GPCRs, discuss some novel perceptions that follow from the identified members, and, finally, present some future prospects.

Immunoanalogue of vertebrate beta-adrenergic receptor in the unicellular eukaryote Paramecium

Cell fractionation, SDS-PAGE, quantitative Western blot, confocal immunolocalization and immunogold labelling were performed to find an interpretation of the physiological response of the unicellular eukaryote Paramecium to beta-adrenergic ligands. The 69 kDa polypeptide separated by SDS-PAGE in S2 and P2 Paramecium subcellular fractions cross-reacted with antibody directed against human beta2-adrenergic receptor. This was detected by Western blotting followed by chemiluminescent detection. Quantitative image analysis showed that beta-selective adrenergic agonist (-)-isoproterenol--previously shown to enhance phagocytic activity--evoked redistribution of the adrenergic receptor analogue from membraneous (P2) to cytosolic (S2) fraction. The relative increase in immunoreactive band intensity in S2 reached 80% and was paralleled by a 59% decrease in P2 fraction. Confocal immunofluorescence revealed beta2-adrenergic receptor sites on the cell surface and at the ridge of the cytopharynx--where nascent phagosomes are formed. This localization was confirmed by immunoelectron microscopy. These results indicate that the 69 kDa Paramecium polypeptide immunorelated to vertebrate beta2-adrenergic receptor appeared in this evolutionary ancient cell as a nutrient receptor.