Phosphorylation abnormalities: NZB mice exhibit a B-cell signalling defect

Targeting Multiple End Organs in Lupus and Other Systemic Rheumatic Diseases by Inhibiting Bruton’s Tyrosine Kinase

Bruton tyrosine kinase (Btk) plays a vital role in activating and differentiating B-cells and regulating signaling in myeloid cells. Indeed, the potential use of Btk inhibitors in preventing lupus has been reported. Here, we extend these observations to 4 additional models of end-organ inflammation: (a) BWF1 lupus nephritis mice, (b) anti-GBM nephritis, (c) bleomycin-induced systemic sclerosis like skin disease, and (d) bleomycin-induced lung disease. In agreement with the previous studies, BTK inhibitor (BTKB66) treatment was effective in treating lupus nephritis in terms of reducing renal damage both functionally and histologically, accompanied by significant decrease in proteinuria. Both low-dose and high-dose BTKB66 profoundly blocked renal disease in the anti-GBM nephritis model, with efficacy that was comparable to that seen with dexamethasone. This study provides the first evidence that BTK inhibition has both therapeutic and preventative effects in bleomycin-induced SSc-like disease, in terms of reducing skin thickness, fibrosis, collagen deposition, and inflammation. Likewise, significantly lower lung inflammatory cell infiltration was observed after treatment with BTKB66. Therapeutic benefit was associated with lower numbers of macrophages, proliferating macrophages and activated T-cells in the respective injured organs. The observation that these immune cells play key roles in driving end organ inflammation in multiple systemic rheumatic diseases have broad implications for the use of BTKB66 in managing patients with systemic rheumatic diseases where multiple end organs are afflicted, including lupus and systemic sclerosis.

Characterization of the metabolic phenotype of chronically activated lymphocytes

Activated lymphocytes proliferate, secrete cytokines, and can make antibodies. Normally activated B and T cells meet the bioenergetic demand for these processes by up-regulating aerobic glycolysis. In contrast, several lines of evidence suggest that pathogenic lymphocytes in autoimmune diseases like lupus meet ATP demands through oxidative phosphorylation. Using (13)C-glucose as a stable tracer, we found that splenocytes from mice with lupus derive the same fraction of lactate from glucose as control animals, suggesting comparable levels of glycolysis and non-oxidative ATP production. However, lupus splenocytes increase glucose oxidation by 40% over healthy control animals. The ratio between pentose phosphate cycle (PPC) activity and glycolysis is the same for each group, indicating that increased glucose oxidation is due to increased activity of the TCA cycle in lupus splenocytes. Repetitive stimulation of cultured human T cells was used to model chronic lymphocyte activation, a phenotype associated with lupus. Chronically activated T cells rely primarily on oxidative metabolism for ATP synthesis suggesting that chronic antigen stimulation may be the basis for the metabolic findings observed in lupus mice. Identification of disease-related bioenergetic phenotypes should contribute to new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for immune diseases.

Systems biology of lupus: mapping the impact of genomic and environmental factors on gene expression signatures, cellular signaling, metabolic pathways, hormonal and cytokine imbalance, and selecting targets for treatment

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is characterized by the dysfunction of T cells, B cells, and dendritic cells, the release of pro-inflammatory nuclear materials from necrotic cells, and the formation of antinuclear antibodies (ANA) and immune complexes of ANA with DNA, RNA, and nuclear proteins. Activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) has recently emerged as a key factor in abnormal activation of T and B cells in SLE. In T cells, increased production of nitric oxide and mitochondrial hyperpolarization (MHP) were identified as metabolic checkpoints upstream of mTOR activation. mTOR controls the expression T-cell receptor-associated signaling proteins CD4 and CD3zeta through increased expression of the endosome recycling regulator Rab5 and HRES-1/Rab4 genes, enhances Ca2+ fluxing and skews the expression of tyrosine kinases both in T and B cells, and blocks the expression of Foxp3 and the generation of regulatory T cells. MHP, increased activity of mTOR, Rab GTPases, and Syk kinases, and enhanced Ca2+ flux have emerged as common T and B cell biomarkers and targets for treatment in SLE.

T-cell and B-cell signaling biomarkers and treatment targets in lupus

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Systemic lupus erythematosus is characterized by the production of antinuclear autoantibodies and dysfunction of T-cells, B-cells, and dendritic cells. Here, we review newly recognized genetic factors and mechanisms that underlie abnormal intracellular signal processing and intercellular communication within the immune system in systemic lupus erythematosus.

RECENT FINDINGS

Activation of the mammalian target of rapamycin plays a pivotal role in abnormal activation of T and B-cells in systemic lupus erythematosus. In T-cells, increased production of nitric oxide and mitochondrial hyperpolarization were identified as metabolic checkpoints upstream of mammalian target of rapamycin activation. Mammalian target of rapamycin controls the expression T-cell receptor-associated signaling proteins CD4 and CD3zeta through increased expression of the endosome recycling regulator HRES-1/Rab4 gene, mediates enhanced Ca2+ fluxing and skews the expression of tyrosine kinases both in T and B-cells, and blocks the expression of Foxp3 and the expansion of regulatory T-cells. Mitochondrial hyperpolarization and the resultant ATP depletion predispose T-cells to necrosis, thus promoting the dendritic cell activation, antinuclear autoantibody production, and inflammation.

SUMMARY

Mitochondrial hyperpolarization, increased activity of mammalian target of rapamycin and Syk kinases, enhanced receptor recycling and Ca2+ flux have emerged as common T and B-cell biomarkers and targets for treatment in systemic lupus erythematosus.