Patterns of sexual dimorphism in the hominoid distal humerus

Morphometric analysis of the humerus in an adult South African cadaveric sample

Recent studies using geometric morphometrics have shown that estimations of demographic parameters can be made using skeletal elements previously not thought useful for such purposes. This study used geometric morphometrics to assess humeral morphological variation in an adult South African sample, and evaluated the accuracy of sex and ancestry estimations based on this variation. Humeri of 1046 adult South African individuals (464 females, 582 males) were digitized. Data sets were rotated and scaled to a common centroid using Generalized Procrustes Analysis. Mean centroid sizes between groups were compared using parametric tests, while morphological variation was evaluated using multivariate analyses. Discriminant Function Analysis coupled with leave-one-out cross-validation tests were used to assess the reliability of sex and ancestry classifications based on this variation. Male humeri were relatively larger and presented with morphological features indicative of larger muscle mass and smaller carrying angles than females. White individuals had relatively larger but morphologically less robust humeri than Black or Coloured individuals, likely a reflection of both genetic and socio-economic differences between the groups as enforced under Apartheid law. When sex and ancestry were assessed together, similar variations were detected than when either parameter was individually assessed. Classification accuracy was relatively low when sex was independently assessed (73.3%), but increased when considered in conjunction with ancestry, indicating greater variation between-groups (ancestry) than within-groups. Ancestry estimation accuracies exceeded 80%, even for the highly diverse Coloured group. Classification accuracies of sex-ancestry groups all exceeded 76%. These results show that humerus morphological variation is present and may be used to estimate parameters, such as sex and ancestry, even in complex groups such as the Coloured sample of this study.

Forearm articular proportions and the antebrachial index in Homo sapiens, Australopithecus afarensis and the great apes

When hominin bipedality evolved, the forearms were free to adopt nonlocomotor tasks which may have resulted in changes to the articular surfaces of the ulna and the relative lengths of the forearm bones. Similarly, sex differences in forearm proportions may be more likely to emerge in bipeds than in the great apes given the locomotor constraints in Gorilla, Pan and Pongo. To test these assumptions, ulnar articular proportions and the antebrachial index (radius length/ulna length) in Homo sapiens (n=51), Gorilla gorilla (n=88), Pan troglodytes (n=49), Pongo pygmaeus (n=36) and Australopithecus afarensis A.L. 288-1 and A.L. 438-1 are compared. Intercept-adjusted ratios are used to control for size and minimize the effects of allometry. Canonical scores axes show that the proximally broad and elongated trochlear notch with respect to size in H. sapiens and A. afarensis is largely distinct from G. gorilla, P. troglodytes and P. pygmaeus. A cluster analysis of scaled ulnar articular dimensions groups H. sapiens males with A.L. 438-1 ulna length estimates, while one A.L. 288-1 ulna length estimate groups with Pan and another clusters most closely with H. sapiens, G. gorilla and A.L. 438-1. The relatively low antebrachial index characterizing H. sapiens and non-outlier estimates of A.L. 288-1 and A.L. 438-1 differs from those of the great apes. Unique sex differences in H. sapiens suggest a link between bipedality and forearm functional morphology.

The pattern of hominin postcranial evolution reconsidered in light of size-related shape variation of the distal humerus

Previous research suggests that some hominin postcranial features do not follow a linear path of increasing modernization through geological time. With respect to the distal humerus, in particular, the earliest known hominin specimens are reportedly among the most modern in morphology, while some later humeri appear further removed from the average modern human shape. Although Plio-Pleistocene humeri vary widely in size, previous studies have failed to account for size-related shape variation when making morphometric comparisons. This study reexamines hominin postcranial evolution in light of distal humeral allometry. Using two-dimensional landmark data, the relationship between specimen size and shape among modern humans is quantified using multivariate regression and principal components analysis of size-shape space. Fossils are compared with modern human shapes expected at a given size, as well as with the overall average human shape. The null hypothesis of humeral isometry in modern humans is rejected. Subsequently, if one takes allometry into account, the apparent pattern of hominin humeral evolution does not resemble the pattern described above. All 14 of the Plio-Pleistocene hominin fossils examined here share a similar pattern of shape differences from equivalently-sized modern humans, though they vary in the extent to which these differences are expressed. The oldest specimen in the sample (KNM-KP 271; Australopithecus anamensis) exhibits the least human-like elbow morphology. Similarly primitive morphology characterizes all younger species of Australopithecus as well as Paranthropus robustus. After 2 Ma, a subtly more human-like elbow morphology is apparent among specimens attributed to early Homo, as well as among isolated specimens that may represent either Homo or Paranthropus boisei. This study emphasizes the need to consider size-related shape variation when individual fossil specimens are compared with the average shape of a comparative group, particularly when specimens fall near an extreme of the comparative size distribution.

The shape of the early hominin proximal femur

Postcranial skeletal variation among Plio-Pleistocene hominins has implications for taxonomy and locomotor adaptation. Although sample size constraints make interspecific comparisons difficult, postcranial differences between Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus have been reported (McHenry and Berger: J Hum Evol 35 1998 1-22; Richmond et al.: J Hum Evol 43 [2002] 529-548; Green et al.: J Hum Evol 52 2007 187-200). Additional evidence indicates that the early members of the genus Homo show morphology like recent humans (e.g., Walker and Leakey: The Nariokotome Homo erectus skeleton. Cambridge: Harvard, 1993). Using a larger fossil sample than previous studies and novel methods, the early hominin proximal femur is newly examined to determine whether new data alter the current view of femoral evolution and inform the issue of interspecific morphological variation among australopiths. Two- and three-dimensional data are collected from large samples of recent humans, Pan, Gorilla, and Pongo and original fossil femora of Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and femora of African fossil Homo. The size-adjusted shape data are analyzed using principal components, thin plate spline analysis, and canonical variate analysis to assess shape variation. The results indicate that femora of fossil Homo are most similar to modern humans but share a low neck-shaft angle (NSA) with australopiths. Australopiths as a group have ape-like greater trochanter morphology. A. afarensis differs from P. robustus and A. africanus in attributes of the neck and NSA. However, interspecific femoral variation is low and australopiths are generally morphologically similar. Although the differences are not dramatic, when considered in combination with other postcranial evidence, the adaptive differences among australopiths in craniodental morphology may have parallels in the postcranium.

The shape of the hominoid proximal femur: a geometric morphometric analysis

As part of the hip joint, the proximal femur is an integral locomotor component. Although a link between locomotion and the morphology of some aspects of the proximal femur has been identified, inclusive shapes of this element have not been compared among behaviourally heterogeneous hominoids. Previous analyses have partitioned complex proximal femoral morphology into discrete features (e.g. head, neck, greater trochanter) to facilitate conventional linear measurements. In this study, three-dimensional geometric morphometrics are used to examine the shape of the proximal femur in hominoids to determine whether femoral shape co-varies with locomotor category. Fourteen landmarks are recorded on adult femora of Homo, Pan, Gorilla, Pongo and Hylobates. Generalized Procrustes analysis (GPA) is used to adjust for position, orientation and scale among landmark configurations. Principal components analysis is used to collapse and compare variation in residuals from GPA, and thin-plate spline analysis is used to visualize shape change among taxa. The results indicate that knucklewalking African apes are similar to one another in femoral shape, whereas the more suspensory Asian apes diverge from the African ape pattern. The shape of the human and orangutan proximal femur converge, a result that is best explained in terms of the distinct requirements for locomotion in each group. These findings suggest that the shape of the proximal femur is brought about primarily by locomotor behaviour.

Size and shape dimorphism in great ape mandibles and implications for fossil species recognition

Sexual dimorphism is an important source of morphological variation, and species differences in dimorphism may be reflected in magnitude, pattern, or both. While the extant great apes are commonly used as a reference sample for distinguishing between sexual dimorphism and intertaxic variation in the fossil record, few studies have evaluated mandibular dimorphism in these taxa. In this study, percentage, degree, and pattern of mandibular dimorphism are evaluated in Pongo, Gorilla, and Pan. Mandibular dimorphism patterns are explored to determine the extent to which such patterns accurately track great ape phylogeny. Pattern stability is assessed to determine whether there are stable patterns of mandibular size and shape dimorphism that may be usefully applied to hominoid or hominid fossil species recognition studies. Finally, the established patterns of dimorphism are used to address recent debates surrounding great ape taxonomy. Results demonstrate that mandibular dimorphism is universally expressed in size, but only Pongo and Gorilla exhibit shape dimorphism. Pattern similarity tends to be greater between subspecies of the same species than between higher-order taxa, suggesting that within the great apes, there is a relationship between dimorphism pattern and phylogeny. However, this relationship is not exact, given that dimorphism patterns are weakly correlated between some closely related taxa, while great ape subspecies may be highly correlated with taxa belonging to other species or genera. Furthermore, dimorphism patterns are not significantly correlated between great ape genera, even between Gorilla and Pan. Dimorphism patterns are more stable in Gorilla and Pongo as compared to Pan, but there is little pattern stability between species or genera. Importantly, few variables differ significantly between taxa that simultaneously show consistently relatively low levels of dimorphism and low levels of variation within taxa. Combined, these findings indicate that mandibular dimorphism patterns can and do vary considerably, even among closely related species, and suggest that it would be difficult to employ great ape mandibular dimorphism patterns for purposes of distinguishing between intra- and interspecies variation in fossil samples. Finally, the degree of pattern similarity in mandibular dimorphism is lower than previously observed by others for craniofacial dimorphism. Thus, the possibility cannot be ruled out that patterns of craniofacial dimorphism in great apes may be associated with a stronger phylogenetic signal than are patterns of mandibular dimorphism.

Patterns of joint size dimorphism in the elbow and knee of catarrhine primates

Differences in body size between conspecific sexes may incur differences in the relative size and/or shape of load-bearing joints, potentially confounding our understanding of variation in the fossil record. More specifically, larger males may experience relatively greater limb joint stress levels than females, unless an increase in weight-related forces is compensated for by positive allometry of articular surface areas. This study examines variation in limb joint size dimorphism (JSD) among extant catarrhines to: 1) determine whether taxa exhibit JSD beyond that expected to simply maintain geometric similarity between sexes, and 2) test whether taxa differ in JSD (relative to body size dimorphism) with respect to differences in limb use and/or phylogeny. "Joint size" was quantified for the distal humerus and distal femur of 25 taxa. Analysis of variance was used to test for differences between sexes (in joint size ratios) and among taxa (in patterns of dimorphism). Multiple regression was used to examine differences in JSD among taxa after accounting for variation in body size dimorphism (BSD) and body size. Although degrees of humeral and femoral JSD tend to be the same within species, interspecific variation exists in the extent to which both joints are dimorphic relative to BSD. While most cercopithecoids exhibit relatively high degrees of JSD (i.e., positive allometry), nonhuman hominoids exhibit degrees of JSD closer to isometry. These results may reflect a fundamental distinction between cercopithecoids and hominoids in joint design. Overall, the results make more sense (from a mechanical standpoint) when adjustments to BSD are made to account for the larger effective female body mass associated with bearing offspring. In contrast to other hominoids, modern humans exhibit relatively high JSD in both the knee and elbow (despite lack of forelimb use in weight support). Estimates of BSD based on fossil limb bones will vary according to the extant analogue chosen for comparison.

Identifying metameric variation in extant hominoid and fossil hominid mandibular molars

Landmark data were collected from cross sections and occlusal images of mandibular molar crowns, and Euclidean distance matrix analysis (EDMA) was used to identify metameric morphological variation between the first and second mandibular molars of living taxa: Gorilla gorilla (n = 30), Pan troglodytes (n = 34), and Homo sapiens (n = 26). Two patterns of metameric variation were identified, one unique to humans and the other shared by chimpanzees and gorillas. In order to assess the utility of this type of analysis for the interpretation of the hominid fossil record, 19 mandibular molars from Sterkfontein Member 4, South Africa, were examined. The pattern of metameric variation of the Sterkfontein molars resembled that of the African great apes, and differed from the modern human pattern. These results demonstrate that data on metameric variation may provide information regarding function or developmental processes previously indiscernible from fossil material.