Development of Agriculture Left-Overs: Fine Organic Chemicals from Wheat Hemicellulose-Derived Pentoses

Photochemical reactions of biomass derived platform chemicals

Platform chemicals obtained from biomass will play an important role in chemical industry. Already existing compounds or not yet established chemicals are produced from this renewable feedstock. Using photochemical reactions as sustainable method for the conversion of matter furthermore permits to develop processes that are interesting from the ecological and economical point of view. Furans or levoglucosenone are thus obtained from carbohydrate containing biomass. Photochemical rearrangements, photooxygenation reactions or photocatalytic radical reactions can be carried out with such compounds. Also, sugars such pentoses or hexoses can be more easily transformed into heterocyclic target compounds when such photochemical reactions are used. Lignin is an important source for aromatic compounds such as vanillin. Photocycloaddition of these compounds with alkenes or the use light supported multicomponent reactions yield interesting target molecules. Dyes, surfactants or compounds possessing a high degree of molecular diversity and complexity have been synthesized with photochemical key steps. Alkenes as platform chemicals are also produced by fermentation processes, for example, with cyanobacteria using biological photosynthesis. Such alkenes as well as terpenes may further be transformed in photochemical reactions yielding, for example, precursors of jet fuels.

Photocatalytic Transformation of Biomass and Biomass Derived Compounds-Application to Organic Synthesis

Biomass and biomass-derived compounds have become an important alternative feedstock for chemical industry. They may replace fossil feedstocks such as mineral oil and related platform chemicals. These compounds may also be transformed conveniently into new innovative products for the medicinal or the agrochemical domain. The production of cosmetics or surfactants as well as materials for different applications are examples for other domains where new platform chemicals obtained from biomass can be used. Photochemical and especially photocatalytic reactions have recently been recognized as being important tools of organic chemistry as they make compounds or compound families available that cannot be or are difficultly synthesized with conventional methods of organic synthesis. The present review gives a short overview with selected examples on photocatalytic reactions of biopolymers, carbohydrates, fatty acids and some biomass-derived platform chemicals such as furans or levoglucosenone. In this article, the focus is on application to organic synthesis.

Synthetic Routes for Designing Furanic and Non Furanic Biobased Surfactants from 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural

5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is one of the most valuable biomass platform molecules, enabling the construction of a plethora of high value-added furanic compounds. In particular, in the last decade, HMF has been considered as a starting material for designing biobased surfactants, not only because of its renewability and carbon footprint, but also because of its enhanced biodegradability. This Review presents recent examples of the different approaches to link the hydrophilic and lipophilic moieties into the hydrophobic furan (and tetrahydrofuran) ring, giving a variety of biobased surfactants that have been classified here according to the charge of the head polar group. Moreover, strategies for the synthesis of different non-furanic structures surfactant molecules (such as levulinic acid, cyclopentanols, and aromatics) derived from HMF are described. The new HMF-based amphiphilic molecules presented here cover a wide range of hydrophilic-lipophilic balance values and have suitable surfactant properties such as surface tension activity and critical micelle concentration, to be an important alternative for the replacement of non-sustainable surfactants.

Direct use of the solid waste from oxytetracycline fermentation broth to construct Hf-containing catalysts for Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reactions

The oxytetracycline fermentation broth residue (OFR) is an abundant solid waste in the fermentation industry, which is hazardous but tricky to treat. The resource utilization of the waste OFR is still challenging. In this study, a novel route of using OFR was proposed that OFR was used as the organic ligands to construct a new hafnium based catalyst (Hf-OFR) for Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley (MPV) reactions of biomass-derived platforms. The acidic groups in OFR were used to coordinate with Hf⁴⁺, and the carbon skeleton structures in OFR were used to form the spatial network structures of the Hf-OFR catalyst. The results showed that the synthesized Hf-OFR catalyst could catalyze the MPV reduction of various carbonyl compounds under relatively mild reaction conditions, with high conversions and yields. Besides, the Hf-OFR catalyst could be recycled at least 5 times with excellent stability in activity and structures. The prepared Hf-OFR catalyst possesses the advantages of high efficiency, a simple preparation process, and low cost in ligands. The proposed strategy of constructing catalysts using OFR may provide new routes for both valuable utilization of the OFR solid waste in the fermentation industry and the construction of efficient catalysts for biomass conversion.

An efficient Hf-OFR catalyst was designed in which Hf⁴⁺ interacts with oxygen-containing acidic groups in oxytetracycline fermentation broth residues for MPV reactions.

Optimization and Characterization of Wheat Bran Modified by Citric Acid Using a Dry Reaction Method for Enhancement of Methylene Blue Adsorption

Wheat bran is modified thermochemically through reaction with citric acid, as carboxyl groups bearing agent, according to a dry condition method at the elevated temperature. In this study, the main objectives are optimization the factors affecting on the pendant carboxylic acid groups of wheat bran–citrate, including concentration of citric acid solution (0–1.8 M), volume of citric acid solution (5.4–16.2 g), curing temperature (0–170 °C), curing time (0–90 min.), mixing method (solution mixing vs kneading) of reactants, and the catalyst effect (0–5, sodium phosphate dibasic dodecahydrate/citric acid molar ratio). The amount of pendant carboxylic acid groups is determined by simple acid-base titration. The obtained methylene blue adsorption data is well matched with the amount of pendant carboxylic acid groups in wheat bran–citrate and this amount increase with an increase in pendant carboxylic acid groups.

Transglycosylation: A Key Reaction to Access Alkylpolyglycosides from Lignocellulosic Biomass

An overview is provided on the recent advances in transglycosylation of cellulose and hemicellulose with either short-chain or long-chain alkyl alcohols. Catalytic processes are compared in terms of yield, selectivity and space-time yield, with a view to identifying the most promising pathways for future developments. In this context, the synthesis of alkylpolyglycosides directly from lignocellulosic biomass is discussed while keeping in mind the impact of the botanical origin on the transglycosylation reaction and the product distribution. A section dedicated to the physicochemical properties and ecological footprint of alkylpolyglycosides is also included.

d-Xylose and l-arabinose laurate esters: Enzymatic synthesis, characterization and physico-chemical properties

Efficient enzymatic synthesis of d-xylose and l-arabinose lauryl mono- and diesters has been achieved by transesterification reactions catalysed by immobilized Candida antarctica lipase B as biocatalyst, in organic medium in the presence of d-xylose or l-arabinose and vinyllaurate at 50 °C. In case of l-arabinose, one monoester and one diester were obtained in a 57% overall yield. A more complex mixture was produced for d-xylose as two monoesters and two diesters were synthesized in a 74.9% global yield. The structures of all these pentose laurate esters was solved. Results demonstrated that the esterification first occurred regioselectively onto the primary hydroxyl groups. Pentose laurate esters exhibited interesting features such as low critical aggregation concentrations values all inferior to 25 μM. Our study demonstrates that the enzymatic production of l-arabinose and d-xylose-based esters represents an interesting approach for the production of green surfactants from lignocellulosic biomass-derived pentoses.

Conversion of Cellulose into Amphiphilic Alkyl Glycosides Catalyzed by Aquivion, a Perfluorosulfonic Acid Polymer

The perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA) Aquivion PW98 is an amphiphilic solid superacid which is shown to catalyze the conversion of cellulose into amphiphilic alkyl glycosides (AAGs) in 85 % yield (with 97 % selectivity). The process involves a mechanocatalytic depolymerization of cellulose followed by a direct glycosylation with n-dodecanol. In comparison to H₂ SO₄ and solid acid catalysts commonly employed in cellulose processing, Aquivion PFSA PW98 is not only recyclable but also exhibits superior catalytic performances in terms of yield, selectivity, and reactor productivity.

Stereoselective acetylation of hemicellulosic C5-sugars

The stereoselective peracetylation of α-d-xylose (1) and α-l-arabinose (4) using a combination of triethylamine and acetic anhydride in the presence or absence of a catalytic amount of dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) is described. The peracetylated d-xylose and l-arabinose alpha pyranose anomers 2α and 5α are obtained in 97% and 56% yields respectively. The peracetylated d-xylose beta pyranose anomer 2β is obtained in 71% yield through simple modification of the reaction conditions. Details regarding synthesis and isolation optimization studies under different conditions are presented below. The stereoselective peracetylation reactions disclosed here have been used to separate mixtures of d-xylose and l-arabinose as their peracetylated derivatives 2β and 5α in 47% and 42% yields and can provide pure pentoses after deacetylation.

Production of polyhydroxybutyrate from wheat bran hydrolysate using Ralstonia eutropha through microbial fermentation

The increasing global demand for sustainable resources necessitates the complete utilization of feedstock. Wheat bran consists of significant amount of cellulose and hemicellulose which can be used as a renewable resource for production of fermentable sugars. In this study, alkaline pretreated wheat bran was enzymatically hydrolyzed using cellulase of Trichoderma reesei (37 FPU/g) and β - glucosidase of Aspergillus niger (50 CBU/g). Among the nitrogen sources tested, ammonium sulphate was identified as best nitrogen source for the production of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB). The overall sugar concentration was about 62.91g/L with the corresponding sugar yield of 629.1mg/g wheat bran and the sugars released were mainly composed of glucose (48.35g/L) and xylose (14.56g/L). The PHB producing mutant strain, Ralstonia eutropha NCIMB 11599 grown in wheat bran hydrolysate produced cell density, PHB and yield of 24.5g/L, 62.5%, and 0.319g/g sugar respectively, with a productivity of 0. 0.255g/L/h. Thus, the results suggested that the wheat bran could be a potential alternative feedstock as it does not require any detoxification due to less inhibitory compounds for production of high cell density with significant amount of polyhydroxybutyrate.

Simple efficient one-pot synthesis of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and 2,5-diformylfuran from carbohydrates

A one-pot procedure for the synthesis of DFF starting from mono-, di- or polysaccharides or from primary biomass has been developed. HMF is formed as intermediate and can also be isolated.

Recent progress in the development of solid catalysts for biomass conversion into high value-added chemicals

In recent decades, the substitution of non-renewable fossil resources by renewable biomass as a sustainable feedstock has been extensively investigated for the manufacture of high value-added products such as biofuels, commodity chemicals, and new bio-based materials such as bioplastics. Numerous solid catalyst systems for the effective conversion of biomass feedstocks into value-added chemicals and fuels have been developed. Solid catalysts are classified into four main groups with respect to their structures and substrate activation properties: (a) micro- and mesoporous materials, (b) metal oxides, (c) supported metal catalysts, and (d) sulfonated polymers. This review article focuses on the activation of substrates and/or reagents on the basis of groups (a)-(d), and the corresponding reaction mechanisms. In addition, recent progress in chemocatalytic processes for the production of five industrially important products (5-hydroxymethylfurfural, lactic acid, glyceraldehyde, 1,3-dihydroxyacetone, and furan-2,5-dicarboxylic acid) as bio-based plastic monomers and their intermediates is comprehensively summarized.

β-Xylopyranosides: synthesis and applications

In recent years, β-xylopyranosides have attracted interest due to the development of biomass-derived molecules. This review focuses on general routes for the preparation of β-xylopyranosides by chemical and enzymatic pathways and their main uses.

Characterization of cell wall components of wheat bran following hydrothermal pretreatment and fractionation

BACKGROUND

Pretreatments are a prerequisite for enzymatic hydrolysis of biomass and production of ethanol. They are considered to open up the plant cell wall structure by altering, moving or solubilizing lignin and hydrolyzing a proportion of hemicellulosic moieties. However, there is little information concerning pretreatment-induced changes on wheat bran cell wall polymers and indeed on changes in cell wall phenolic esters in bran or other lignocellulosic biomass. Here, we evaluate polymeric changes (chemical and physical) as a result of selected hydrothermal pretreatment conditions on destarched wheat bran using controlled polymer extraction methods. Quantification of cell wall components together with soluble oligosaccharides, the insoluble residues and ease of extractability and fractionation of biomass residues were conducted.

RESULTS

Pretreatment solubilized selected arabinoxylans and associated cross-linking ferulic and diferulic acids with a concomitant increase in lignin and cellulosic glucose. The remaining insoluble arabinoxylans were more readily extractable in alkali and showed considerable depolymerization. The degree of arabinose substitution was less in xylans released by higher concentrations of alkali. The recalcitrant biomass which remained after pretreatment and alkali extraction contained mostly cellulosic glucose and Klason lignin. Pretreatment generated small but insignificant amounts of yeast-inhibiting compounds such as furfural and hydroxymethyl furfural. As such, simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of the hydrothermally pretreated bran resulted in increased ethanol yields compared to that of the control (97.5% compared to 63% theoretical).

CONCLUSION

Hydrothermal pretreatment of destarched wheat bran resulted in degradation and depolymerization of the hemicellulosic arabinoxylans together with some breakdown of cellulosic glucose. This was accompanied by a significant reduction in the cross-linking phenolic acids such as ferulic and diferulic acids. The results suggest that hydrothermal pretreatment enhances enzymatic digestibility of the cellulose not only by depolymerization and solubilization of the hemicelluloses but by breakdown of interpolymeric phenolic cross-links between the remaining insoluble polymers. This allows easier access of hydrolytic enzymes by opening or loosening of the cell wall thus resulting in enhanced saccharification of cellulose and subsequent fermentation to ethanol. The reduction in cinnamic acids by selected breeding or biotechnological approaches could provide a useful basis for improved saccharification and fractionation of wheat bran polysaccharides.

Acidic pretreatment of wheat straw in decanol for the production of surfactant, lignin and glucose

Wheat straw is an abundant residue of agriculture which is increasingly being considered as feedstock for the production of fuels, energy and chemicals. The acidic decanol-based pre-treatment of wheat straw has been investigated in this work. Wheat straw hemicellulose has been efficiently converted during a single step operation into decyl pentoside surfactants and the remaining material has been preserved keeping all its promises as potential feedstock for fuels or value added platform chemicals such as hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). The enzymatic digestibility of the cellulose contained in the straw residue has been evaluated and the lignin prepared from the material characterized. Wheat-based surfactants thus obtained have exhibited superior surface properties compared to fossil-based polyethoxylates decyl alcohol or alkyl oligoglucosides, some of which are largely used surfactants. In view of the growing importance of renewable resource-based molecules in the chemical industry, this approach may open a new avenue for the conversion of wheat straw into various chemicals.

Conversion of biomass to selected chemical products

This critical review provides a survey illustrated by recent references of different strategies to achieve a sustainable conversion of biomass to bioproducts. Because of the huge number of chemical products that can be potentially manufactured, a selection of starting materials and targeted chemicals has been done. Also, thermochemical conversion processes such as biomass pyrolysis or gasification as well as the synthesis of biofuels were not considered. The synthesis of chemicals by conversion of platform molecules obtained by depolymerisation and fermentation of biopolymers is presently the most widely envisioned approach. Successful catalytic conversion of these building blocks into intermediates, specialties and fine chemicals will be examined. However, the platform molecule value chain is in competition with well-optimised, cost-effective synthesis routes from fossil resources to produce chemicals that have already a market. The literature covering alternative value chains whereby biopolymers are converted in one or few steps to functional materials will be analysed. This approach which does not require the use of isolated, pure chemicals is well adapted to produce high tonnage products, such as paper additives, paints, resins, foams, surfactants, lubricants, and plasticisers. Another objective of the review was to examine critically the green character of conversion processes because using renewables as raw materials does not exempt from abiding by green chemistry principles (368 references).