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Chen Y, Zhang X, Liu Z, Yang J, Chen C, Wang J, Yang Z, He L, Xu P, Hu X, Luo G, He W. Obstruction of the formation of granulation tissue leads to delayed wound healing after scald burn injury in mice. BURNS & TRAUMA 2021; 9:tkab004. [PMID: 34212057 PMCID: PMC8240558 DOI: 10.1093/burnst/tkab004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Delayed wound healing remains a common but challenging problem in patients with acute or chronic wound following accidental scald burn injury. However, the systematic and detailed evaluation of the scald burn injury, including second-degree deep scald (SDDS) and third-degree scald (TDS), is still unclear. The present study aims to analyze the wound-healing speed, the formation of granulation tissue, and the healing quality after cutaneous damage. METHODS In order to assess SDDS and TDS, the models of SDDS and TDS were established using a scald instrument in C57BL/6 mice. Furthermore, an excisional wound was administered on the dorsal surface in mice (Cut group). The wound-healing rate was first analyzed at days 0, 3, 5, 7, 15 and 27, with the Cut group as a control. Then, on the full-thickness wounds, hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, Masson staining, Sirius red staining, Victoria blue staining and immunohistochemistry were performed to examine re-epithelialization, the formation of granulation tissue, vascularization, inflammatory infiltration and the healing quality at different time points in the Cut, SDDS and TDS groups. RESULTS The presented data revealed that the wound-healing rate was higher in the Cut group, when compared with the SDDS and TDS groups. H&E staining showed that re-epithelialization, formation of granulation tissue and inflammatory infiltration were greater in the Cut group, when compared with the SDDS and TDS groups. Immunohistochemistry revealed that the number of CD31, vascular endothelial growth factor A, transforming growth factor-β and α-smooth muscle actin reached preferential peak in the Cut group, when compared with other groups. In addition, Masson staining, Sirius red staining, Victoria blue staining, Gordon-Sweets staining and stress analysis indicated that the ratio of collagen I to III, reticular fibers, failure stress, Young's modulus and failure length in the SDDS group were similar to those in the normal group, suggesting that healing quality was better in the SDDS group, when compared with the Cut and TDS groups. CONCLUSION Overall, the investigators first administered a comprehensive analysis in the Cut, SDDS and TDS groups through in vivo experiments, which further proved that the obstacle of the formation of granulation tissue leads to delayed wound healing after scald burn injury in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunxia Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Institute of Burn Research, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Disease Proteomics, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Xiaorong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Institute of Burn Research, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Disease Proteomics, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Zhihui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Institute of Burn Research, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Disease Proteomics, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Jiacai Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Institute of Burn Research, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Disease Proteomics, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Cheng Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Institute of Burn Research, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Jue Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Institute of Burn Research, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Zengjun Yang
- Department of Dermatology, Southwest Hospital, Army Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Lei He
- Department of Osteopathic Medicine, Southwest Hospital, Army Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Pengcheng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Institute of Burn Research, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Xiaohong Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Institute of Burn Research, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Disease Proteomics, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Gaoxing Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Institute of Burn Research, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Disease Proteomics, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Weifeng He
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Institute of Burn Research, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing 400038, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory for Disease Proteomics, Chongqing 400038, China
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Missiaen R, Mazzone M, Bergers G. The reciprocal function and regulation of tumor vessels and immune cells offers new therapeutic opportunities in cancer. Semin Cancer Biol 2018; 52:107-116. [PMID: 29935312 PMCID: PMC6548870 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2018.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Tumor angiogenesis and escape of immunosurveillance are two cancer hallmarks that are tightly linked and reciprocally regulated by paracrine signaling cues of cell constituents from both compartments. Formation and remodeling of new blood vessels in tumors is abnormal and facilitates immune evasion. In turn, immune cells in the tumor, specifically in context with an acidic and hypoxic environment, can promote neovascularization. Immunotherapy has emerged as a major therapeutic modality in cancer but is often hampered by the low influx of activated cytotoxic T-cells. On the other hand, anti-angiogenic therapy has been shown to transiently normalize the tumor vasculature and enhance infiltration of T lymphocytes, providing a rationale for a combination of these two therapeutic approaches to sustain and improve therapeutic efficacy in cancer. In this review, we discuss how the tumor vasculature facilitates an immunosuppressive phenotype and vice versa how innate and adaptive immune cells regulate angiogenesis during tumor progression. We further highlight recent results of antiangiogenic immunotherapies in experimental models and the clinic to evaluate the concept that targeting both the tumor vessels and immune cells increases the effectiveness in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rindert Missiaen
- VIB-Center for Cancer Biology, and KU Leuven, Department of Oncology, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Massimiliano Mazzone
- VIB-Center for Cancer Biology, and KU Leuven, Department of Oncology, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Gabriele Bergers
- VIB-Center for Cancer Biology, and KU Leuven, Department of Oncology, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Research Center, Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA.
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Redundant angiogenic signaling and tumor drug resistance. Drug Resist Updat 2018; 36:47-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2018.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2017] [Revised: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Jung K, Heishi T, Khan OF, Kowalski PS, Incio J, Rahbari NN, Chung E, Clark JW, Willett CG, Luster AD, Yun SH, Langer R, Anderson DG, Padera TP, Jain RK, Fukumura D. Ly6Clo monocytes drive immunosuppression and confer resistance to anti-VEGFR2 cancer therapy. J Clin Invest 2017; 127:3039-3051. [PMID: 28691930 DOI: 10.1172/jci93182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Current anti-VEGF therapies for colorectal cancer (CRC) provide limited survival benefit, as tumors rapidly develop resistance to these agents. Here, we have uncovered an immunosuppressive role for nonclassical Ly6Clo monocytes that mediates resistance to anti-VEGFR2 treatment. We found that the chemokine CX3CL1 was upregulated in both human and murine tumors following VEGF signaling blockade, resulting in recruitment of CX3CR1+Ly6Clo monocytes into the tumor. We also found that treatment with VEGFA reduced expression of CX3CL1 in endothelial cells in vitro. Intravital microscopy revealed that CX3CR1 is critical for Ly6Clo monocyte transmigration across the endothelium in murine CRC tumors. Moreover, Ly6Clo monocytes recruit Ly6G+ neutrophils via CXCL5 and produce IL-10, which inhibits adaptive immunity. Preventing Ly6Clo monocyte or Ly6G+ neutrophil infiltration into tumors enhanced inhibition of tumor growth with anti-VEGFR2 therapy. Furthermore, a gene therapy using a nanoparticle formulated with an siRNA against CX3CL1 reduced Ly6Clo monocyte recruitment and improved outcome of anti-VEGFR2 therapy in mouse CRCs. Our study unveils an immunosuppressive function of Ly6Clo monocytes that, to our knowledge, has yet to be reported in any context. We also reveal molecular mechanisms underlying antiangiogenic treatment resistance, suggesting potential immunomodulatory strategies to enhance the long-term clinical outcome of anti-VEGF therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keehoon Jung
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratories for Tumor Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Takahiro Heishi
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratories for Tumor Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Omar F Khan
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Piotr S Kowalski
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Joao Incio
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratories for Tumor Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nuh N Rahbari
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratories for Tumor Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Euiheon Chung
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratories for Tumor Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jeffrey W Clark
- Department of Hematology/Oncology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Andrew D Luster
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Seok Hyun Yun
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Robert Langer
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Daniel G Anderson
- David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Timothy P Padera
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratories for Tumor Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Rakesh K Jain
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratories for Tumor Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Dai Fukumura
- Edwin L. Steele Laboratories for Tumor Biology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Arnason T, Harkness T. Development, Maintenance, and Reversal of Multiple Drug Resistance: At the Crossroads of TFPI1, ABC Transporters, and HIF1. Cancers (Basel) 2015; 7:2063-82. [PMID: 26501324 PMCID: PMC4695877 DOI: 10.3390/cancers7040877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 10/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Early detection and improved therapies for many cancers are enhancing survival rates. Although many cytotoxic therapies are approved for aggressive or metastatic cancer; response rates are low and acquisition of de novo resistance is virtually universal. For decades; chemotherapeutic treatments for cancer have included anthracyclines such as Doxorubicin (DOX); and its use in aggressive tumors appears to remain a viable option; but drug resistance arises against DOX; as for all other classes of compounds. Our recent work suggests the anticoagulant protein Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor 1α (TFPI1α) plays a role in driving the development of multiple drug resistance (MDR); but not maintenance; of the MDR state. Other factors; such as the ABC transporter drug efflux pumps MDR-1/P-gp (ABCB1) and BCRP (ABCG2); are required for MDR maintenance; as well as development. The patient population struggling with therapeutic resistance specifically requires novel treatment options to resensitize these tumor cells to therapy. In this review we discuss the development, maintenance, and reversal of MDR as three distinct phases of cancer biology. Possible means to exploit these stages to reverse MDR will be explored. Early molecular detection of MDR cancers before clinical failure has the potential to offer new approaches to fighting MDR cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terra Arnason
- Department of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 0W8, Canada
- Correspondence: ; Tel.:+1-306-844-1119; Fax: +1-306-844-1512
| | - Troy Harkness
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 0W8, Canada;
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Compensatory angiogenesis and tumor refractoriness. Oncogenesis 2015; 4:e153. [PMID: 26029827 PMCID: PMC4753522 DOI: 10.1038/oncsis.2015.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2015] [Revised: 04/04/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the establishment of tumor angiogenesis as a therapeutic target, an excitement in developing the anti-angiogenic agents was resulted in tailoring a humanized monoclonal antibody (Bevacizumab) against vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF): a key factor in recruiting angiogenesis. The past three decades' research in the area of angiogenesis also invented a series of novel and effective anti-angiogenic agents targeting the VEGF signaling axis. Despite the demonstrable clinical benefits of anti-angiogenic therapy, the preclinical and clinical data of the current therapeutic settings clearly indicate the transient efficacy, restoration of tumor progression and aggressive recurrence of tumor invasion after the withdrawal of anti-angiogenic therapy. Therefore, the impact of this therapeutic regime on improving overall survival of patients has been disappointing in clinic. The recent advances in pathophysiology of tumor angiogenesis and related molecular and cellular underpinnings attributed the conspiracy of compensatory angiogenic pathways in conferring evasive and intrinsic tumor resistance to anti-angiogenic agents. The understandings of how these pathways functionally cross-talk for sustaining tumor angiogenesis during VEGF blockade is essential and perhaps may act as a basic prerequisite for designing novel therapeutic strategies to combat the growing arrogance of tumors toward anti-angiogenic agents. The present review offers a discourse on major compensatory angiogenic pathways operating at cellular and molecular levels and their attributes with resistance to anti-angiogenic agents along with strategic opinions on future setting in targeting tumor angiogenesis.
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Song HHG, Park KM, Gerecht S. Hydrogels to model 3D in vitro microenvironment of tumor vascularization. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2014; 79-80:19-29. [PMID: 24969477 PMCID: PMC4258430 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2014.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2013] [Revised: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
A growing number of failing clinical trials for cancer therapy are substantiating the need to upgrade the current practice in culturing tumor cells and modeling tumor angiogenesis in vitro. Many attempts have been made to engineer vasculature in vitro by utilizing hydrogels, but the application of these tools in simulating in vivo tumor angiogenesis is still very new. In this review, we explore current use of hydrogels and their design parameters to engineer vasculogenesis and angiogenesis and to evaluate the angiogenic capability of cancerous cells and tissues. By coupling these hydrogels with other technologies such as lithography and three-dimensional printing, one can create an advanced microvessel model as microfluidic channels to more accurately capture the native angiogenesis process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Ho Greco Song
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins Physical Sciences - Oncology Center and Institute for NanoBioTechnology, 3400 North Charles street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Kyung Min Park
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins Physical Sciences - Oncology Center and Institute for NanoBioTechnology, 3400 North Charles street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Sharon Gerecht
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins Physical Sciences - Oncology Center and Institute for NanoBioTechnology, 3400 North Charles street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA.
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Rigamonti N, Kadioglu E, Keklikoglou I, Wyser Rmili C, Leow CC, De Palma M. Role of angiopoietin-2 in adaptive tumor resistance to VEGF signaling blockade. Cell Rep 2014; 8:696-706. [PMID: 25088418 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2014.06.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2013] [Revised: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 06/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Angiopoietin-2 (ANG2/ANGPT2) is a context-dependent TIE2 receptor agonist/antagonist and proangiogenic factor. Although ANG2 neutralization improves tumor angiogenesis and growth inhibition by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A signaling blockade, the mechanistic underpinnings of such therapeutic benefits remain poorly explored. We employed late-stage RIP1-Tag2 pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PNETs) and MMTV-PyMT mammary adenocarcinomas, which develop resistance to VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) blockade. We found that VEGFR2 inhibition upregulated ANG2 and vascular TIE2 and enhanced infiltration by TIE2-expressing macrophages in the PNETs. Dual ANG2/VEGFR2 blockade suppressed revascularization and progression in most of the PNETs, whereas it had only minor additive effects in the mammary tumors, which did not upregulate ANG2 upon VEGFR2 inhibition. ANG2/VEGFR2 blockade did not elicit increased PNET invasion and metastasis, although it exacerbated tumor hypoxia and hematopoietic cell infiltration. These findings suggest that evasive tumor resistance to anti-VEGFA therapy may involve the adaptive enforcement of ANG2-TIE2 signaling, which can be reversed by ANG2 neutralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolò Rigamonti
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ece Kadioglu
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ioanna Keklikoglou
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Céline Wyser Rmili
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ching Ching Leow
- Translational Medicine Oncology, MedImmune, Gaithersburg, MD 20878, USA
| | - Michele De Palma
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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Plasmid transfer of plasminogen K1-5 reduces subcutaneous hepatoma growth by affecting inflammatory factors. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:656527. [PMID: 24895598 PMCID: PMC4034484 DOI: 10.1155/2014/656527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2014] [Revised: 04/09/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
There is evidence that plasminogen K1-5 (PlgK1-5) directly affects tumour cells and inflammation. Therefore, we analysed if PlgK1-5 has immediate effects on hepatoma cells and inflammatory factors in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, effects of plasmid encoding PlgK1-5 (pK1-5) on Hepa129, Hepa1-6, and HuH7 cell viability, apoptosis, and proliferation as well as VEGF and TNF-alpha expression and STAT3-phosphorylation were investigated. In vivo, tumour growth, proliferation, vessel density, and effects on vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) expression were examined following treatment with pK1-5. In vivo, pK1-5 halved cell viability; cell death was increased by up to 15% compared to the corresponding controls. Proliferation was not affected. VEGF, TNF-alpha, and STAT3-phosphorylation were affected following treatment with pK1-5. In vivo, ten days after treatment initiation, pK1-5 reduced subcutaneous tumour growth by 32% and mitosis by up to 77% compared to the controls. Vessel density was reduced by 50%. TNF-alpha levels in tumour and liver tissue were increased, whereas VEGF levels in tumours and livers were reduced after pK1-5 treatment. Taken together, plasmid gene transfer of PlgK1-5 inhibits hepatoma (cell) growth not only by reducing vessel density but also by inducing apoptosis, inhibiting proliferation, and triggering inflammation.
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