Structure activity relationships for the chemical behaviour and toxicity of electrophilic quinones/quinone methides

Plant-Mediated Synthesis of Magnetite Nanoparticles with Matricaria chamomilla Aqueous Extract

Magnetite nanoparticles (NPs) possess properties that make them suitable for a wide range of applications. In recent years, interest in the synthesis of magnetite NPs and their surface functionalization has increased significantly, especially regarding their application in biomedicine such as for controlled and targeted drug delivery. There are several conventional methods for preparing magnetite NPs, all of which mostly utilize Fe(iii) and Fe(ii) salt precursors. In this study, we present a microwave hydrothermal synthesis for the precipitation of magnetite NPs at temperatures of 200 °C for 20 min and 260 °C for 5 min, with only iron(iii) as a precursor utilizing chamomile flower extract as a stabilizing, capping, and reducing agent. Products were characterized using FTIR, PXRD, SEM, and magnetometry. Our analysis revealed significant differences in the properties of magnetite NPs prepared with this approach, and the conventional two-precursor hydrothermal microwave method (sample MagH). FTIR and PXRD analyses confirmed coated magnetite particles. The temperature and magnetic-field dependence of magnetization indicate their superparamagnetic behavior. Importantly, the results of our study show the noticeable cytotoxicity of coated magnetite NPs-toxic to carcinoma cells but harmless to healthy cells-further emphasizing the potential of these NPs for biomedical applications.

The Combination of Electrochemistry and Microfluidic Technology in Drug Metabolism Studies

Drugs are metabolized within the liver (pH 7.4) by phase I and phase II metabolism. During the process, reactive metabolites can be formed that react covalently with biomolecules and induce toxicity. Identifying and detecting reactive metabolites is an important part of drug development. Preclinical and clinical investigations are conducted to assess the toxicity and safety of a new drug candidate. Electrochemistry coupled to mass spectrometry is an ideal complementary technique to the current preclinical studies, a pure instrumental approach without any purification steps and tedious protocols. The combination of microfluidics with electrochemistry towards the mimicry of drug metabolism offers portability, low volume of reagents and faster reaction times. This review explores the development of microfluidic electrochemical cells for mimicking drug metabolism.

Revisiting the Oxidation of Flavonoids: Loss, Conservation or Enhancement of Their Antioxidant Properties

Flavonoids display a broad range of health-promoting bioactivities. Among these, their capacity to act as antioxidants has remained most prominent. The canonical reactive oxygen species (ROS)-scavenging mode of the antioxidant action of flavonoids relies on the high susceptibility of their phenolic moieties to undergo oxidation. As a consequence, upon reaction with ROS, the antioxidant capacity of flavonoids is severely compromised. Other phenol-compromising reactions, such as those involved in the biotransformation of flavonoids, can also markedly affect their antioxidant properties. In recent years, however, increasing evidence has indicated that, at least for some flavonoids, the oxidation of such residues can in fact markedly enhance their original antioxidant properties. In such apparent paradoxical cases, the antioxidant activity arises from the pro-oxidant and/or electrophilic character of some of their oxidation-derived metabolites and is exerted by activating the Nrf2–Keap1 pathway, which upregulates the cell’s endogenous antioxidant capacity, and/or, by preventing the activation of the pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory NF-κB pathway. This review focuses on the effects that the oxidative and/or non-oxidative modification of the phenolic groups of flavonoids may have on the ability of the resulting metabolites to promote direct and/or indirect antioxidant actions. Considering the case of a metabolite resulting from the oxidation of quercetin, we offer a comprehensive description of the evidence that increasingly supports the concept that, in the case of certain flavonoids, the oxidation of phenolics emerges as a mechanism that markedly amplifies their original antioxidant properties. An overlooked topic of great phytomedicine potential is thus unraveled.

Metabolism Study of Veratramine Associated with Neurotoxicity by Using HPLC-MSn

Veratramine (VAM) is the major lipid-soluble alkaloid existing in Veratrum nigrum L. that has been demonstrated to exert neurotoxic effects. To better understand the potential mechanism of neurotoxicity of VAM, VAM-induced DNA damage was measured in the cerebellum and cerebral cortex of mice after a 7-day repetitive oral dose by using single-cell gel electrophoresis (comet assay). A method based on high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry was developed for the determination of VAM and its in vivo and in vitro metabolites, to establish the potential correlation between metabolites and neurotoxicity. In vitro experiment was carried out using rat liver microsomes, whereas the in vivo study was conducted on rats at a single dose of 3 mg/kg. The results showed that VAM caused DNA damage in the cerebellum and cerebral cortex of mice in a dose-dependent manner. Phenyl mono-oxidation, sulfate conjugation and phenyl di-oxidation were proposed to be the main in vivo metabolic pathways of VAM, whereas the major in vitro metabolic pathways were phenyl mono-oxidation, hydroxylation and methylation. Phenyl-oxidation reaction was likely to be associated with reactive oxygen species production, leading to the DNA damage in the mouse brain.

Regioselective O-derivatization of quercetin via ester intermediates. An improved synthesis of rhamnetin and development of a new mitochondriotropic derivative

The regioselective synthesis of several quercetin (3,3’,4’,5,7-pentahydroxy flavone) tetraesters bearing a single free OH on 5-C was achieved in good yield by proper choice of reaction conditions using common esterification procedures. Tetracetylated quercetin with the free OH on 7-C was selectively obtained instead via imidazole-promoted deacylation of the corresponding pentaester. Unambiguous structural characterization of the two isomeric tetraacetyl quercetin derivatives was obtained by combined HSQC and HMBC 2D-NMR analysis. These molecules can be used as starting materials for the regioselective synthesis of other derivatives. High yield syntheses of the natural polyphenol rhamnetin (7-O-methylquercetin) and of the new mitochondriotropic compound 7-(4-triphenylphosphoniumbutyl) quercetin iodide are reported as examples.

Flavonoids and tyrosine nitration: structure–activity relationship correlation with enthalpy of formation

The ability of 11 flavonoids, naturally occurring polyphenols, and their related structure-activity relationships (SAR's) for inhibiting peroxynitrite-induced nitration of tyrosine was investigated. The flavonoids under study could be classified into four groups having very distinct in vitro inhibition effects. We also calculated the heat of formation (DeltaH(f)) of the corresponding flavonoids radicals which supported this finding. The most effective flavonoids included: catechin, taxifolin, luteolin, quercetin, and myricetin which have a common structural feature of ortho-dihydroxyl moiety (3',4'-OH substitution). Naringenin, kaempferol, and morin were 50% less effective inhibitors than the former group of flavonoid while their activities were in the range of trolox (an alpha-tocopherol analogue). The common structural aspect of this group of flavonoids is 4'-OH substitution. Therefore, these two groups of flavonoids may have similar mechanisms for their inhibition activity. No inhibition activity was observed by galangin. Apigenin behaved as a pro-oxidant in our in vitro study. Naringin was as effective as the second group at 4 mM tyrosine concentration while did not illustrate any inhibitory effect at 1 mM concentration of tyrosine. Our study provides further evidence for the importance of the catechol B ring and to a lesser effect the importance of 4'-OH substitution. Moreover, we observed very little or no influence on activity of flavonoids by 3-OH substitution and/or a C2-C3 double bond conjugated with 4-keto group within the subgroup containing the catechol moiety. Theoretical calculation of DeltaDeltaH(f) for tyrosyl radical repair by flavonoids (TyO*+FlOH-->TyOH+FlO*) correlated well with our in vitro results (inhibition% = -10 (DeltaDeltaH(f)), R2=0.906). Furthermore, this correlation was independent of tyrosine concentration. This model can be used to accurately predict the inhibitory effect of flavonoids on nitrotyrosine formation.

Intracellular metabolism and bioactivity of quercetin and its in vivo metabolites

Understanding the cellular effects of flavonoid metabolites is important for predicting which dietary flavonoids might be most beneficial in vivo. Here we investigate the bioactivity in dermal fibroblasts of the major reported in vivo metabolites of quercetin, i.e. 3'-O-methyl quercetin, 4'-O-methyl quercetin and quercetin 7-O-beta-D-glucuronide, relative to that of quercetin, in terms of their further metabolism and their resulting cytotoxic and/or cytoprotective effects in the absence and presence of oxidative stress. Uptake experiments indicate that exposure to quercetin led to the generation of two novel cellular metabolites, one characterized as a 2'-glutathionyl quercetin conjugate and another product with similar spectral characteristics but 1 mass unit lower, putatively a quinone/quinone methide. A similar product was identified in cells exposed to 3'-O-methyl quercetin, but not in the lysates of those exposed to its 4'-O-methyl counterpart, suggesting that its formation is related to oxidative metabolism. There was no uptake or metabolism of quercetin 7-O-beta-D-glucuronide by fibroblasts. Formation of oxidative metabolites may explain the observed concentration-dependent toxicity of quercetin and 3'-O-methyl quercetin, whereas the formation of a 2'-glutathionyl quercetin conjugate is interpreted as a detoxification step. Both O -methylated metabolites conferred less protection than quercetin against peroxide-induced damage, and quercetin glucuronide was ineffective. The ability to modulate cellular toxicity paralleled the ability of the compounds to decrease the level of peroxide-induced caspase-3 activation. Our data suggest that the actions of quercetin and its metabolites in vivo are mediated by intracellular metabolites.