In field-stimulated guinea-pig atria an AT1-receptor mediated increase of noradrenaline release by angiotensin II is seen only in the presence of prejunctional autoinhibition

Involvement of G-protein βγ subunits on the influence of inhibitory α2-autoreceptors on the angiotensin AT1-receptor modulation of noradrenaline release in the rat vas deferens

The influence of alpha2-autoreceptors on the facilitation of [3H]-noradrenaline release mediated by angiotensin II was studied in prostatic portions of rat vas deferens preincubated with [3H]-noradrenaline. Angiotensin II enhanced tritium overflow evoked by trains of 100 pulses at 8 Hz, an effect that was attenuated by the AT1-receptor antagonist losartan (0.3-1 microM), at concentrations suggesting the involvement of the AT1B subtype. The effect of angiotensin II was also attenuated by inhibition of phospholipase C (PLC) and protein kinase C (PKC) indicating that prejunctional AT1-receptors are coupled to the PLC-PKC pathway. Angiotensin II (0.3-100 nM) enhanced tritium overflow more markedly, up to 64%, under conditions that favor alpha2-autoinhibition, observed when stimulation consisted of 100 pulses at 8 Hz, than under poor alpha2-autoinhibition conditions, only up to 14%, observed when alpha2-adrenoceptors were blocked with yohimbine (1 microM) or when stimulation consisted of 20 pulses at 50 Hz. Activation of PKC with 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA, 0.1-3 microM) also enhanced tritium overflow more markedly under strong alpha2-autoinhibition conditions. Inhibition of Gi/o-proteins with pertussis toxin (8 microg/ml) or blockade of Gbetagamma subunits with the anti-betagamma peptide MPS-Phos (30 microM) attenuated the effects of angiotensin II and PMA. The results indicate that activation of AT1-receptors coupled to the PLC-PKC pathway enhances noradrenaline release, an effect that is markedly favoured by an ongoing activation of alpha2-autoreceptors. Interaction between alpha2-adrenoceptors and AT1-receptors seems to involve the betagamma subunits released from the Gi/o-proteins coupled to alpha2-adrenoceptors and protein kinase C activated by AT1-receptors.

Molecular mechanisms underlying the modulation of exocytotic noradrenaline release via presynaptic receptors

The release of noradrenaline from nerve terminals is modulated by a variety of presynaptic receptors. These receptors belong to one of the following three receptor superfamilies: transmitter-gated ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR), and membrane receptors with intracellular enzymatic activities. For representatives of each of these three superfamilies, receptor activation has been reported to cause either an enhancement or a reduction of noradrenaline release. As these receptor classes display greatly diverging structures and functions, a multitude of different molecular mechanisms are involved in the regulation of noradrenaline release via presynaptic receptors. This review gives a short overview of the presynaptic receptors on noradrenergic nerve terminals and summarizes the events involved in vesicle exocytosis in order to finally delineate the most important signaling cascades that mediate the modulation via presynaptic receptors. In addition, the interactions between the various presynaptic receptors are described and the underlying molecular mechanisms are elucidated. Together, these presynaptic signaling mechanisms form a sophisticated network that precisely adapts the amount of noradrenaline being released to a given situation.

Pre- and postjunctional effects of angiotensin II in hypertension due to adenosine receptor blockade

Prejunctional facilitation of [3H]noradrenaline release induced by sympathetic nerve stimulation and postjunctional contractile effects of angiotensin II were studied in the mesenteric artery and vein of 1,3-dipropyl-8-sulfophenylxanthine (DPSPX)-hypertensive rats. Male Wistar rats received infusions of saline or DPSPX (90 microg/kg/h) i.p.. Blood pressure was determined by tail-cuff. The prejunctional effect of angiotensin II was similar in artery and vein preparations of control rats and was increased in DPSPX-hypertensive rats. In contrast, the contractile effect of angiotensin II was much more pronounced in the mesenteric vein than in the mesenteric artery of control rats and was markedly reduced in DPSPX-hypertensive rats. We conclude that (1) the increased prejunctional effect of angiotensin II may contribute to, while (2) the decreased contractile effect of angiotensin II may attenuate DPSPX-induced hypertension. This study also supports the hypothesis that pre- and postjunctional angiotensin II receptors are different.

Reduction of Vascular Noradrenaline Sensitivity by AT 1 Antagonists Depends on Functional Sympathetic Innervation

Blockade of angiotensin II type-1 (AT 1 ) receptors has been shown to reduce the magnitude of the blood pressure response to noradrenaline in pithed rats via an unidentified mechanism. Dose-response curves were established for the noradrenaline-induced (10 −12 to 10 −7 mol/kg) increase of diastolic blood pressure in pithed rats treated with tubocurarine, propranolol, and atropine. Candesartan (1 mg/kg) increased the ED 50 of the noradrenaline response (1.3±0.1 nmol/kg) up to 20-fold. Vasopressor responsiveness to noradrenaline was attenuated specifically, whereas the vasopressin-induced increase in diastolic blood pressure was maintained. Specific involvement of AT 1 receptors was confirmed by equivalent actions of losartan. Blockade of norepinephrine transporter or α 2 -adrenoceptors using desipramine or rauwolscine reduced the losartan-induced shifts in the ED 50 values of noradrenaline by 63% and 21%, respectively. Combined blockade of norepinephrine transporter and α 2 -adrenoceptors eliminated the influence of losartan on noradrenaline sensitivity ( ED 50 5.5±1.3 versus 5.6±1.2 nmol/kg), a result also observed after sympathetic denervation by reserpine ( ED 50 7.1±0.8 versus 7.8±0.8 nmol/kg). Our experiments show that the reduction of vascular noradrenaline sensitivity by AT 1 blockade is dependent on the intact functioning of both neuronal noradrenaline uptake via norepinephrine transporter and presynaptic α 2 -mediated autoinhibition, exclusively provided by the sympathetic innervation. These newly identified mechanisms may contribute to the antihypertensive and protective actions of AT 1 blockers.

Crosstalk between presynaptic angiotensin receptors, bradykinin receptors and alpha 2-autoreceptors in sympathetic neurons: a study in alpha 2-adrenoceptor-deficient mice

1. In mouse atria, angiotensin II and bradykinin lose much or all of their noradrenaline release-enhancing effect when presynaptic alpha(2)-autoinhibition does not operate either because of stimulation with very brief pulse trains or because of treatment with alpha(2) antagonists. We now studied this operational condition in alpha(2)-adrenoceptor-deficient mice. Release of (3)H-noradrenaline was elicited by electrical stimulation. 2. In tissues from wild-type (WT) mice, angiotensin II and bradykinin increased the overflow of tritium evoked by 120 pulses at 3 Hz. This enhancement did not occur or was much reduced when tissues were stimulated by 120 pulses at 3 Hz in the presence of rauwolscine and phentolamine, or when they were stimulated by 20 pulses at 50 Hz. 3. In tissues from mice lacking the alpha(2A)-adrenoceptor (alpha(2A)KO) or the alpha(2B)-adrenoceptor (alpha(2B)KO), the concentration-response curves of angiotensin II and bradykinin (120 pulses at 3 Hz) were unchanged. In tissues from mice lacking the alpha(2C)-adrenoceptor (alpha(2C)KO) or both the alpha(2A)- and the alpha(2C)-adrenoceptor (alpha(2AC)KO), the concentration-response curves were shifted to the same extent downwards. 4. As in WT tissues, angiotensin II and bradykinin lost most or all of their effect in alpha(2A)KO and alpha(2AC)KO tissues when rauwolscine and phentolamine were present or trains consisted of 20 pulses at 50 Hz. 5. Rauwolscine and phentolamine increased tritium overflow evoked by 120 pulses at 3 Hz up to seven-fold in WT and alpha(2B)KO tissues, three-fold in alpha(2A)KO and alpha(2C)KO tissues, and two-fold in alpha(2AC)KO tissues. 6. Results confirm that angiotensin II and bradykinin require ongoing alpha(2)-autoinhibition for the full extent of their release-enhancing effect. Specifically, they require ongoing alpha(2C)-autoinhibition. The peptide effects that remain in alpha(2C)-autoreceptor-deficient mice seem to be because of alpha(2B)-autoinhibition. The results hence also suggest that in addition to alpha(2A)- and alpha(2C)- mouse postganglionic sympathetic neurons possess alpha(2B)-autoreceptors.

Angiotensin II induces catecholamine release by direct ganglionic excitation

Angiotensin II (ANG) is known to facilitate catecholamine release from peripheral sympathetic neurons by enhancing depolarization-dependent exocytosis. In addition, a direct excitation by ANG of peripheral sympathetic nerve activity has recently been described. This study determined the significance of the latter mechanism for angiotensin-induced catecholamine release in the pithed rat. Rats were anesthetized and instrumented for measuring either hemodynamics and renal sympathetic nerve activity or plasma catecholamine concentrations in response to successively increasing doses of angiotensin infusions. Even during ganglionic blockade by hexamethonium (20 mg/kg), angiotensin dose-dependently elevated sympathetic nerve activity, whereas blood pressure-equivalent doses of phenylephrine were ineffective. Independently of central nervous sympathetic activity and ganglionic transmission, angiotensin (0.1 to 1 microg/kg) also induced an up-to 27-fold increase in plasma norepinephrine levels, reaching 2.65 ng/mL. Preganglionic electrical stimulation (0.5 Hz) raised basal norepinephrine levels 11-fold and further enhanced the angiotensin-induced increase in norepinephrine (4.04 ng/mL at 1 microg/kg ANG). Stimulation of sympathetic nerve activity and norepinephrine release were suppressed by candesartan (1 mg/kg) or tetrodotoxin (100 microg/kg), respectively. Angiotensin enhanced plasma norepinephrine, heart rate, and sympathetic nerve activity at similar threshold doses (0.3 to 1 microg/kg), but raised blood pressure at a significantly lower dose (0.01 microg/kg). It is concluded that direct stimulation of ganglionic angiotensin type 1 (AT(1)) receptors arouses electrical activity in sympathetic neurons, leading to exocytotic junctional catecholamine release. In both the absence and presence of preganglionic sympathetic activity, this mechanism contributes significantly to ANG-induced enhancement of catecholamine release.

Enhancement of noradrenaline release by angiotensin II and bradykinin in mouse atria: evidence for cross-talk between G(q/11) protein- and G(i/o) protein-coupled receptors

1. The interaction between alpha(2)-autoreceptors and receptors for angiotensin (AT(1)) and bradykinin (B(2)) was studied in mouse isolated atria. The preparations were labelled with [(3)H]-noradrenaline and then superfused with desipramine-containing medium and stimulated electrically. 2. Angiotensin II (10(-11) - 10(-7) M), angiotensin III (10(-10) - 10(-6) M) and bradykinin (10(-11) - 10(-7) M) enhanced the evoked overflow of tritium when preparations were stimulated with conditions that led to marked alpha(2)-autoinhibition (120 pulses at 3 Hz), but not when stimulated with conditions that led to little alpha(2)-autoinhibition (20 pulses at 50 Hz). 3. Blockade of alpha-adrenoceptors by phentolamine (1 or 10 microM) reduced or abolished the effect of angiotensin II and bradykinin on the overflow response to 120 pulses at 3 Hz. 4. Addition of the delta-opioid agonist [D-Ser(2)]-leucine enkephalin-Thr (DSLET, 0.1 microM), or of neuropeptide Y (0.1 microM), together with phentolamine, restored the effect of angiotensin II and bradykinin. 5. The beta-adrenoceptor agonist terbutaline (10(-9) - 10(-4) M) enhanced the evoked overflow of tritium irrespective of the degree of autoinhibition. 6. The experiments show that (i) a marked prejunctional facilitatory effect of angiotensin and bradykinin in mouse isolated atria requires prejunctional alpha(2)-autoinhibition; (ii) in the absence of alpha(2)-autoinhibition, activation of other prejunctional G(i/o) protein-coupled receptors, namely opioid and neuropeptide Y receptors, restores a marked effect of angiotensin II and bradykinin; and (iii) the facilitatory effect of terbutaline is not dependent upon the degree of alpha(2)-autoinhibition. The findings indicate that the major part of the release-enhancing effect elicited through prejunctional G(q/11) protein-coupled receptors is due to disruption of an ongoing, alpha(2)-autoreceptor-triggered G(i/o) protein mediated inhibition.