Epigenetics of gastric cancer

Gastric juice non-coding RNAs as potential biomarkers for gastric cancer

Gastric cancer (GC), being one of the most common malignant human tumors, occupies the second position in the structure of mortality in men and women. High rates of morbidity and mortality in this pathology determine its extremely high clinical and social significance. Diagnosis and timely treatment of precancerous pathology is the main way to reduce morbidity and mortality, and early detection of GC and its adequate treatment improve prognosis. The ability to accurately predict the development of GC and start treatment on time, as well as the ability to determine the stage of the disease if the diagnosis is confirmed - non-invasive biomarkers can become the key to solving these and many other problems of modern medicine. One of the promising biomarkers being studied are non-coding RNAs, namely, miсroRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs). They are involved in a wide range of processes, including apoptosis, proliferation, differentiation, angiogenesis, which play a critical role in the development of GC oncogenesis. In addition, they are quite specific and stable due to their carriers (extracellular vesicles or Argonaute 2 protein) and can be detected in various human biological fluids, in particular gastric juice. Thus, miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs isolated from the gastric juice of GC patients are promising preventive, diagnostic and prognostic non-invasive biomarkers. This review article presents the characteristics of circulating or extracellular miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs in gastric juice, allowing their use in the GC preventive, diagnosis, prognosis and monitoring therapy.

MBD1/HDAC3-miR-5701-FGFR2 axis promotes the development of gastric cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide due to the lack of specific biomarkers for the early diagnosis and universal accepted therapy for advanced GC. Lower levels of miR-5701 were found in the GC tissue from the online sequencing data and confirmed in the GC tissues and GC cell lines. Overexpression of miR-5701 inhibited the proliferation and migration of GC cells and promoted the apoptosis of these cells. Bioinformatics analyses and luciferase assay showed that miR-5701 targeted FGFR2, which acted as an oncogene in GC. Nude mice with GC cells overexpressing miR-5701 exhibited smaller tumor sizes and less lung metastases. The miR-5701 expression was directly, transcriptionally inhibited by MBD1 together with HDAC3 by binding together to form a complex. Knocked down MBD1 or HDAC3 increased the miR-5701 expression. These results indicated the potential use of exogenously administered miR-5701 or agents that elevated endogenous miR-5701 to inhibit GC, improving the prognosis of patients with GC.

Antisense long non-coding RNAs in gastric cancer

Gastric cancer is a global health problem with high mortality. The incidence of gastric cancer has significant regional differences. Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection and its interaction with epigenetics are closely related to the occurrence of gastric cancer. It is of great significance to explore the early diagnosis and effective therapeutic targets of gastric cancer. Emerging evidence indicates that antisense long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are closely associated with various biological and functional aspects of gastric cancer. However, diverse antisense lncRNAs in gastric cancer have not been compiled and discussed. In this review, we summarize the predisposing factors and compile the interaction between H. pylori and epigenetics in gastric cancer. Moreover, we focus on the underlying molecular mechanism and regulatory role of each antisense lncRNA in gastric cancer. In addition, we provide a new insight into the potential diagnosis and treatment of antisense lncRNAs in gastric cancer.

Relationship between DLEC1 and PBX3 promoter methylation and the risk and prognosis of gastric cancer in peripheral blood leukocytes

PURPOSE

Aberrant DNA methylation could regulate the expression of tumor suppressor gene DLEC1 and oncogene PBX3 and was related to the occurrence and prognosis of gastric cancer (GC). In this study, the associations between DLEC1 and PBX3 promoter methylation in peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs) and the risk and prognosis of GC were investigated.

METHODS

The methylation status of DLEC1 and PBX3 promoter in PBLs of 368 GC cases and 382 controls was detected by the methylation-sensitive high-resolution melting (MS-HRM) method. Logistic and Cox regression were adopted to analyze the associations of DLEC1 and PBX3 methylation with GC risk and prognosis, respectively. Confounding biases were controlled by propensity score (PS).

RESULTS

Compared with negative methylation (Nm), DLEC1-positive methylation (Pm) was associated with increased GC risk in PS (OR 2.083, 95% CI 1.220-3.558, P = 0.007), but PBX3 Pm was not associated with GC risk. In the elderly group (≥ 60 years), DLEC1 Pm was associated with increased GC risk (OR 2.951, 95% CI 1.426-6.104, P = 0.004). The combined effects between DLEC1 methylation and consumption of dairy products, fried food intake and Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection on GC risk were discovered (ORc 3.461, 95% CI 1.847-6.486, P < 0.001, ORc 3.246, 95% CI 1.708-6.170, P < 0.001 and ORc 2.964, 95% CI 1.690-5.197, P < 0.001, respectively). Furthermore, DLEC1 and PBX3 methylation were not associated with GC prognosis.

CONCLUSION

DLEC1 methylation in PBLs and the combined effects of gene-environment can influence GC risk.

Methylation of SLFN11 promotes gastric cancer growth and increases gastric cancer cell resistance to cisplatin

Background and Aim: Human SLFN11 gene encodes a protein with structural similarity to RNA helicases, which was reported to sensitize cancer cells to DNA-damaging agents. This study explored the epigenetic regulation and mechanism of SLFN11 in human gastric cancer.

Methods: Eight human gastric cancer cell lines and 201 cases of primary gastric cancer were analyzed. Methylation specific PCR, flow cytometry, xenograft mouse model and siRNA technique were employed.

Results: SLFN11 was methylated in 29.9% (60/201) of primary gastric cancer. The expression of SLFN11 was regulated by promoter region methylation. Methylation of SLFN11 was significantly associated with tumor size (p < 0.05). SLFN11 suppressed gastric cancer growth both in vitro and in vivo and enhanced the ability of cisplatin to induce S-phrase arrest and apoptosis in gastric cancer cells.

Conclusions: SLFN11 is frequently methylated in human gastric cancer, and its expression is regulated by promoter region methylation. Our results demonstrate that SLFN11 is a tumor suppressor in human gastric cancer, and methylation of SLFN11 may serve as a cisplatin resistant marker in human gastric cancer.

Genomic alterations in gastric cancers discovered via whole-exome sequencing

Background

Gastric cancer (GC) ranks the second in mortality rate among all cancers. Metastases account for most of the deaths in GC patients. Yet our understanding of GC and its metastasis mechanism is still very limited.

Methods

We performed 20 whole-exome sequencing (WES) on 5 typical metastatic gastric adenocarcinoma (GAC) patients with lymph node metastasis. We compared both the primary tumors to their metastatic lymph nodes, and a specific analysis pipeline was used to detect single nucleotide variants (SNVs), small insertions/deletions (indels) and copy number variants (CNVs).

Results

(1) We confirmed 30 candidate mutations in both primary and lymph nodes tissues, and other 7 only in primary tumors. (2) Copy number gains were observed in a large section of 17q12–21, as well as copy number losses in regions containing CDKN2A and CDKN2B in both primary and lymph nodes tissues.

Conclusions

Our results provide preliminary insights in the molecular mechanisms of GC initiation, development, and metastatic progression. These results need to be validated through large-scale studies.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12885-018-5097-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Potential role of chromatin remodeling factor genes in atrophic gastritis/gastric cancer risk

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Atrophic gastritis (AG), intestinal metaplasia (IM), and Helicobacter pylori (HP) are the risk factors for the development of gastric cancer (GC). Chromatin remodeling is one of the epigenetic mechanisms involved in the carcinogenesis of GC. The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression profiles of defined chromatin remodeling genes in gastric mucosal samples and their values as gastric carcinogenesis biomarkers.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In total, 95 patients were included in the study. Patients were divided into 3 groups as: GC group (n=34), AG group (n=36), and control group (n=25). AG group was further divided into subgroups based on the presence of HP and IM in gastric mucosa. Chromatin remodeling gene expressions were analyzed using real-time PCR (RT-PCR) array in all groups. Data were evaluated using the RT-qPCR primer assay data analysis software.

RESULTS

EED, CBX3, and MTA1 were more overexpressed, whereas ARID1A, ING5, and CBX7 were more underexpressed in the AG and GC groups compared with the controls. No significant differences were observed between the AG and GC groups concerning the expression of these 6 genes, although the fold change levels of these genes in the GC group were well above than in the AG group. EED, CBX3, and MTA1 were significantly more overexpressed in HP- and IM-positive AG subgroup compared with the HP- or IM-negative AG subgroup.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, our results provide an evidence of epigenetic alterations in AG. Expressions of EED, CBX3, MTA1, ARID1A, ING5, and CBX7 may be considered as promising markers to be used in GC screening for patients with AG.

Epigenetic regulation of long non-coding RNAs in gastric cancer

Gastric cancer is one of the most common cancers and is the second leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide. Therefore, it is urgent to explore new molecular biomarkers for early diagnosis, early treatment and prognosis for gastric cancer patients. Recently, increasing evidence has shown that epigenetic changes, such as aberrant DNA methylation, histone modifications, and noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) expression, play substantial roles in the development and progression of malignancies. Among these changes, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), a novel class of ncRNAs, are emerging as highly versatile actors in a variety of cellular processes by regulating gene expression at the epigenetic level as well as at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. Hundreds of lncRNAs become dysregulated in the various pathological processes of gastric cancer, and multiple lncRNAs have been reported to function as tumor-suppressors or oncogenes, although the underlying mechanisms are still under investigation. Here, we provide an overview of the epigenetic regulation of chromatin and the molecular functions of lncRNAs; we focus on lncRNA-mediated epigenetic regulation of cancer-related gene expression in gastric cancer, as well as discuss the clinical implications of lncRNAs on epigenetic-related cancer treatments, which may contribute helpful approaches for the development of new potential strategies for future diagnosis and therapeutic intervention in human cancers.

MicroRNA-21 promotes TGF-β1-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in gastric cancer through up-regulating PTEN expression

This study aimed to explore the effects of miR-21 and PTEN/Akt signaling pathway on TGF-β1-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in gastric cancer (GC). GC tissues and adjacent tissues were collected from 83 patients. The qRT-PCR assay was performed to detect miR-21 expression. The expressions of PTEN, Akt and p-Akt were detected by immunohistochemistry. After 48 h of treatment with TGF-β1 (10 ng/mL), the SGC-7901 and KATO-III cells were divided into the blank, negative control (NC), miR-21 inhibitors, PTEN-siRNA and miR-21 inhibitors + PTEN-siRNA groups. EMT related factors and PTEN expressions were detected by qRT-PCR assay and Western blotting. The scratch test was conducted to observe cell migration. Xenograft tumor model in nude mice was used to evaluate the effects of miR-21 on EMT of GC cells in vivo. In GC tissues, the expressions of miR-21, Akt and p-Akt were up-regulated, while PTEN expression was down-regulated. Gene and protein expressions of E-cadherin and PTEN in the miR-21 inhibitors group were higher than the blank, NC, PTEN-siRNA and miR-21 inhibitors + PTEN-siRNA groups, while the expressions of N-cadherin, β-catenin, Vimentin and Slug in the miR-21 inhibitors group were lower than other groups. MiR-21 inhibitors significantly inhibit cell migration and invasion in GC cell lines. In vivo xenograft experiment revealed that miR-21 inhibitor inhibits the growth of transplanted tumor through up-regulating E-cadherin and PTEN expressions and down-regulating the expressions of N-cadherin, β-catenin, Vimentin and Slug. These results suggest that miR-21 could promote TGF-β1-induced EMT in GC cells through up-regulating PTEN expression.

Microrna-136 promotes proliferation and invasion ingastric cancer cells through Pten/Akt/P-Akt signaling pathway

Gastric cancer is the fourth most common cancer and the second most frequent cause of cancer-associated mortality in the world. Previous studies have revealed that expression levels of microRNAs (miRNAs) are associated with the initiation and progression of several types of cancer, including gastric cancer. Previous studies have demonstrated that the abnormal expression of miRNA-136 may serve a function in the progression of several types of human cancer. However, the expression pattern of miR-136, its functions and underlying molecular mechanisms in gastric cancer remain unresolved. In the present study, it was revealed that the expression of miR-136 was aberrantly up regulated in gastric cancer tissues and cell lines. The suppression of miR-136 was able to inhibit proliferation and invasion in gastric cancer cell lines. Furthermore, phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) was identified as a direct target gene of miR-136 in gastric cancer. PTEN was under expressed in gastric cancer tissues compared with non-tumor gastric tissues, and PTEN expression was negatively correlated with miR-136 expression. Furthermore, PTEN overexpression mimics the effects of miR-136 knockdown on gastric cancer cells. Additionally, miR-136 under expression decreased phospho-(p) AKT expression, but did not affect AKT expression in gastric cancer cells. In conclusion, the data of the present study suggest that miR-136 acts as an oncogene in gastric cancer via regulation of the PTEN/AKT/p-AKT signaling pathway and may potentially serve as a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of gastric cancer.

PTEN Gene Induces Cell Invasion and Migration via Regulating AKT/GSK-3β/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway in Human Gastric Cancer

BACKGROUND

Abnormality of PTEN gene and Wnt/β-catenin signaling have been strongly implicated in various malignant cancers. Recently, it has been noted that a functional interaction/cross-talk was found between the PTEN/PI3K/AKT and Wnt/β-catenin, which plays a key role in the development of cancers. However, few related studies on gastric cancer are available.

AIM

We examined the expression of PTEN and β-catenin in gastric cancer tissues and detected whether down-regulation of PTEN promotes the migration and invasion in gastric cancer cells along with its underlying mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Immunocytochemistry, a wound healing assay, a Matrigel invasion assay, an immunofluorescence staining were performed to detect expression of PTEN and β-catenin in gastric cancer and adjacent normal tissues, cell migration, cell invasion, and the effects of PTEN knockdown on β-catenin in cells, respectively. Further, MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities were analyzed by zymography assay. The changes in related proteins were further quantified by western blotting.

RESULTS

Low expression of PTEN was found in majority of gastric cancer tissues, which showed significant associations with differentiation grade in gastric cancer patients. Further, a negative correlation was revealed between PTEN and β-catenin protein expression in gastric cancer tissues (r = - 0.546, P < 0.01). Additionally, PTEN knockdown promoted the migration and invasion of cells and caused an obvious increase in p-AKT, p-GSK-3β, β-catenin, E-cadherin, MMP-7, MMP-2, and MMP-9 in gastric cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicated PTEN gene might induce cell invasion and migration via regulating AKT/GSK-3β/β-catenin signaling pathway, playing a vital role in the progression of gastric cancer.

Influence of MTHFR Genetic Background on p16 and MGMT Methylation in Oral Squamous Cell Cancer

Genetic polymorphisms of the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) enzyme may influence DNA methylation. Alterations in DNA methylation patterns of genes involved in the regulation of the cell cycle, DNA repair, cell adherence and metastasis process are known to contribute to cancer development. In this study, the influence of the MTHFR C677T and A1298C gene polymorphisms on global DNA methylation and site-specific methylation on p16 and O⁶-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) gene promoters was investigated in patients with oral squamous cell cancer (OSCC). To this aim, methylation studies were carried out by using genomic DNA isolated from saliva samples of 58 OSCC patients and 90 healthy controls. The frequency of the CT/AC and TT/AA genotypes was significantly higher in patients than in controls. Whereas no difference in global DNA methylation levels was observed between patients and controls, a higher frequency of methylation at both p16 and MGMT gene promoters was detected in patients compared with controls. A significant association between MTHFR gene polymorphisms and p16 and MGMT gene promoter methylation was found. The frequency of p16 and MGMT methylation was around 60% in patients with either the CT/AC or TT/AA genotype. Our results suggest that hypermethylation of cancer-related genes may be affected by MTHFR polymorphisms.

Epigenetics of oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma: opportunities for novel chemotherapeutic targets

Epigenetic modifications are heritable changes in gene expression that do not directly alter DNA sequence. These modifications include DNA methylation, histone post-translational modifications, small and non-coding RNAs. Alterations in epigenetic profiles cause deregulation of fundamental gene expression pathways associated with carcinogenesis. The role of epigenetics in oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC) has recently been recognized, with implications for novel biomarkers, molecular diagnostics and chemotherapeutics. In this review, important epigenetic pathways in human papillomavirus (HPV) positive and negative OPSCC are summarized, as well as the potential clinical utility of this knowledge.This material has never been published and is not currently under evaluation in any other peer-reviewed publication.

TGFβ1-Induced LncRNA UCA1 Upregulation Promotes Gastric Cancer Invasion and Migration

According to recent studies, long noncoding RNA urothelial carcinoma associated 1 (UCA1) is involved in the development and progression of many malignant tumors, including gastric cancer (GC). We validated the detailed role of UCA1 in human GC cell lines and GC tissues so as to determine its exact function and the underlying mechanism of GC invasion and migration. In our research, lncRNA-UCA1 was specifically upregulated in GC tissues and cell lines, and augmented GC cell proliferation, and invasive and migratory capabilities. High UCA1 expression in GC was related with poorer prognosis (poorer invasion depth, lymph node metastasis, advanced TNM [T is for the original (primary) tumor, N for nearby (regional) lymph nodes that are involved, and M for distant metastasis] stage, and shorter overall survival). Epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), associated with malignancy of cancers, was reported to be responsible for invasion and migration of cancer cells. Transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1)-induced EMT was well evaluated. UCA1 silence reduced the protein levels of EMT-related factors, vimentin and snail, while promoted E-cadherin and zonula occludens-1 protein levels in GC cells; the effect of UCA1 could be partly restored by TGFβ1 treatment. Taken together, UCA1 might regulate the tumor proliferation, invasion, and metastasis under TGFβ1 induction. Taken together, UCA1 might present a potential oncogenic factor by promoting GC cell proliferation, invasion, and migration. UCA1 could serve as a novel biomarker for prognosis and a novel therapeutic target of GC treatment.

The detective, prognostic, and predictive value of DNA methylation in human esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Esophageal cancer is one of the most common malignancies in the world. Squamous cell carcinoma accounts for approximately 90 % of esophageal cancer cases. Genetic and epigenetic changes have been found to accumulate during the development of various cancers, including esophageal squamous carcinoma (ESCC). Tobacco smoking and alcohol consumption are two major risk factors for ESCC, and both tobacco and alcohol were found to induce methylation changes in ESCC. Growing evidence demonstrates that aberrant epigenetic changes play important roles in the multiple-step processes of carcinogenesis and tumor progression. DNA methylation may occur in the key components of cancer-related signaling pathways. Aberrant DNA methylation affects genes involved in cell cycle, DNA damage repair, Wnt, TGF-β, and NF-κB signaling pathways, including P16, MGMT, SFRP2, DACH1, and ZNF382. Certain genes methylated in precursor lesions of the esophagus demonstrate that DNA methylation may serve as esophageal cancer early detection marker, such as methylation of HIN1, TFPI-2, DACH1, and SOX17. CHFR methylation is a late stage event in ESCC and is a sensitive marker for taxanes in human ESCC. FHIT methylation is associated with poor prognosis in ESCC. Aberrant DNA methylation changes may serve as diagnostic, prognostic, and chemo-sensitive markers. Characterization of the DNA methylome in ESCC will help to better understand its mechanisms and develop improved therapies.

Silencing NKD2 by promoter region hypermethylation promotes gastric cancer invasion and metastasis by up-regulating SOX18 in human gastric cancer

Naked cuticle homolog2 (NKD2) is located in chromosome 5p15.3, which is frequently loss of heterozygosity in human colorectal and gastric cancers. In order to understand the mechanism of NKD2 in gastric cancer development, 6 gastric cancer cell lines and 196 cases of human primary gastric cancer samples were involved. Methylation specific PCR (MSP), gene expression array, flow cytometry, transwell assay and xenograft mice model were employed in this study. The expression of NKD1 and NKD2 was silenced by promoter region hypermethylation. NKD1 and NKD2 were methylated in 11.7% (23/196) and 53.1% (104/196) in human primary gastric cancer samples. NKD2 methylation is associated with cell differentiation, TNM stage and distant metastasis significantly (all P < 0.05), and the overall survival time is longer in NKD2 unmethylated group compared to NKD2 methylated group (P < 0.05). Restoration of NKD2 expression suppressed cell proliferation, colony formation, cell invasion and migration, induced G2/M phase arrest, and sensitized cancer cells to docetaxel. NKD2 inhibits SOX18 and MMP-2,7,9 expression and suppresses BGC823 cell xenograft growth. In conclusion, NKD2 methylation may serve as a poor prognostic and chemo-sensitive marker in human gastric cancer. NKD2 impedes gastric cancer metastasis by inhibiting SOX18.

Epigenome-based personalized medicine in human cancer

Cancer genome sequencing has created an opportunity for precision medicine. Thus far, genetic alterations can only be used to guide treatment for small subsets of certain cancer types with these key alterations. Similar to mutations, epigenetic events are equally suitable for personalized medicine. DNA methylation alterations have been used to identify tumor-specific drug responsive markers. Methylation of MGMT sensitizes gliomas to alkylating agents is an example of epigenetic personalized medicine. Recent studies have revealed that 5-azacytidine and decitabine show activity in myelodysplasia, lung and other cancers. There are currently at least 20 kinds of histone deacetylase inhibitors in clinical testing. Inhibitors targeting other epigenetic regulators are being clinically tested, such as EZH2 inhibitor EPZ-6438.