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Fan X, Zhang Y, Liu W, Shao M, Gong Y, Wang T, Xue S, Nian R. A comprehensive review of engineered exosomes from the preparation strategy to therapeutic applications. Biomater Sci 2024. [PMID: 38828621 DOI: 10.1039/d4bm00558a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
Exosomes exhibit high bioavailability, biological stability, targeted specificity, low toxicity, and low immunogenicity in shuttling various bioactive molecules such as proteins, lipids, RNA, and DNA. Natural exosomes, however, have limited production, targeting abilities, and therapeutic efficacy in clinical trials. On the other hand, engineered exosomes have demonstrated long-term circulation, high stability, targeted delivery, and efficient intracellular drug release, garnering significant attention. The engineered exosomes bring new insights into developing next-generation drug delivery systems and show enormous potential in therapeutic applications, such as tumor therapies, diabetes management, cardiovascular disease, and tissue regeneration and repair. In this review, we provide an overview of recent advancements associated with engineered exosomes by focusing on the state-of-the-art strategies for cell engineering and exosome engineering. Exosome isolation methods, including traditional and emerging approaches, are systematically compared along with advancements in characterization methods. Current challenges and future opportunities are further discussed in terms of the preparation and application of engineered exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiying Fan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China.
- Shandong Energy Institute, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China
| | - Yiwen Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China.
- Shandong Energy Institute, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19(A) Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenshuai Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China.
- Shandong Energy Institute, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China
| | - Mingzheng Shao
- Research Center on Advanced Chemical Engineering and Energy Materials, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, P. R. China.
| | - Yibo Gong
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China.
- Shandong Energy Institute, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19(A) Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Tingya Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China.
- Shandong Energy Institute, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19(A) Yuquan Road, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
| | - Song Xue
- Research Center on Advanced Chemical Engineering and Energy Materials, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, P. R. China.
| | - Rui Nian
- CAS Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China.
- Shandong Energy Institute, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China
- Qingdao New Energy Shandong Laboratory, No. 189, Songling Road, Qingdao 266101, China
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Rešetar Maslov D, Rubić I, Farkaš V, Kuleš J, Beer Ljubić B, Beletić A, Samardžija M, Kovačić M, Jurkić Krsteska G, Mrljak V. Characterization and LC-MS/MS based proteomic analysis of extracellular vesicles separated from blood serum of healthy and dogs naturally infected by Babesia canis. A preliminary study. Vet Parasitol 2024; 328:110188. [PMID: 38653059 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2024.110188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Canine babesiosis is a rapidly spreading tick-borne disease in Europe, which entails protozoan parasites invading red blood cells. Small extracellular vesicles (EVs) (< 200 nm) were isolated from the serum of 15 healthy and 15 by Babesia canis naturally infected dogs aimed to distinguish EV characteristics and protein profiles. There were no significant differences (P = 0.05) observed in the mean sizes and concentrations of serum EVs between the healthy and canine babesiosis groups. Despite a higher number of Canis lupus proteins detected in EVs from serum of diseased dogs, there were no statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) in the number of protein IDs between the experimental groups. We successfully identified 211 Canis lupus proteins across both experimental groups, of which 147 Canis lupus proteins were validated as being EV-associated. This data set is accessible via the ProteomeXchange PXD047647. EVs isolated from serum of B. canis infected dogs were Cd9+, Cd63+, Cd81+, and Cd82+. Furthermore, 73 Canis lupus proteins were validated as EV-associated and specific for EVs isolated from serum of B. canis-infected dogs. These were predominantly membrane and cytosolic proteins, and innate and adaptive immune system-related proteins, especially those involved in adhesion and proteoglycan mechanisms like integrins. Enrichment was also observed for proteins involved in vascular and cellular responses, including signalling pathways such as VEGF, VEGFR, and the LKB1 network. When only blood-related sites of EV expression were evaluated, the origins of EV proteins were mostly cells of immune system. These were dendritic cells, neutrophils, B cells, monocytes and platelets. In general, proteins were enriched in pathways that collectively regulate various cellular processes, including immune responses, communication, signal transduction, membrane trafficking, and apoptosis. Serum EVs and their protein cargo may have an important role in both the invasion of B. canis and the host's response to the parasitic infection, nevertheless, additional experimental research is warranted. The overall count of identified EV proteins of parasitic origin, meeting cut off criteria of two peptides and 1 % FDR, was relatively low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Rešetar Maslov
- Laboratory of proteomics, Internal Diseases Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova street 55, Zagreb 10000, Croatia.
| | - Ivana Rubić
- Laboratory of proteomics, Internal Diseases Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova street 55, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
| | - Vladimir Farkaš
- Laboratory of proteomics, Internal Diseases Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova street 55, Zagreb 10000, Croatia; Ruđer Bošković Insitute, Division of Molecular Medicine, Laboratory of Molecular Neuropsychiatry, Bijenička cesta 54, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Josipa Kuleš
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova Street 55, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
| | - Blanka Beer Ljubić
- Internal Diseases Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova street 55, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
| | - Anđelo Beletić
- Laboratory of proteomics, Internal Diseases Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova street 55, Zagreb 10000, Croatia; Genos Ltd, Glycoscience Research Laboratory, Borongajska cesta 83H, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
| | - Marko Samardžija
- Reproduction and Obstetrics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova street 55, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
| | - Mislav Kovačić
- Department of Biology, University of Osijek, Osijek 31000, Croatia
| | - Gabrijela Jurkić Krsteska
- Internal Diseases Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova street 55, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
| | - Vladimir Mrljak
- Laboratory of proteomics, Internal Diseases Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Heinzelova street 55, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
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Bay M, Seval GC, Coskun O, Gurman G, Erdas NO. Phosphatidylserine and Tyro3-Axl-Mertk Receptor Tyrosine Kinase level detection in plasma and on plasma-derived extracellular vesicle surface in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Cell Biochem Funct 2024; 42:e4035. [PMID: 38715180 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.4035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Revised: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a chronic lymphoproliferative disorder characterized by monoclonal B cell proliferation. Studies carried out in recent years suggest that extracellular vesicles (EVs) may be a potential biomarker in cancer. Tyro3-Axl-Mertk (TAM) Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs) and Phosphatidylserine (PS) have crucial roles in macrophage-mediated immune response under normal conditions. In the tumor microenvironment, these molecules contribute to immunosuppressive signals and prevent the formation of local and systemic antitumor immune responses. Based on this, we aimed to evaluate the amount of PS and TAM RTK in plasma and on the surface of EVs in CLL patients and healthy volunteers in this study. In this study, 25 CLL (11 F/14 M) patients in the Rai (O-I) stage, newly diagnosed or followed up without treatment, and 15 healthy volunteers (11 F/4 M) as a control group were included. For all samples, PS and TAM RTK levels were examined first in the plasma and then in the EVs obtained from the plasma. We detected a significant decrease in plasma PS, and TAM RTK levels in CLL patients compared to the control. Besides, we determined a significant increase in TAM RTK levels on the EV surface in CLL, except for PS. In conclusion, these receptor levels measured by ELISA in plasma may not be effective for the preliminary detection of CLL. However, especially TAM RTKs on the surface of EVs may be good biomarkers and potential targets for CLL therapies.
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MESH Headings
- Humans
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/blood
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/diagnosis
- Leukemia, Lymphocytic, Chronic, B-Cell/metabolism
- Extracellular Vesicles/metabolism
- Extracellular Vesicles/chemistry
- Female
- Phosphatidylserines/metabolism
- Phosphatidylserines/blood
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/metabolism
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/blood
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Aged
- Axl Receptor Tyrosine Kinase
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/blood
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/metabolism
- Adult
- c-Mer Tyrosine Kinase/metabolism
- Aged, 80 and over
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Affiliation(s)
- Meltem Bay
- Stem Cell Institute, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | | | - Oznur Coskun
- Department of Genetics, Ankara University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Gunhan Gurman
- Losante Children's and Adult Hospital Cancer Research Institute, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Nesrin Ozsoy Erdas
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
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Han W, Zhang H, Feng L, Dang R, Wang J, Cui C, Jiang P. The emerging role of exosomes in communication between the periphery and the central nervous system. MedComm (Beijing) 2023; 4:e410. [PMID: 37916034 PMCID: PMC10616655 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Exosomes, membrane-enclosed vesicles, are secreted by all types of cells. Exosomes can transport various molecules, including proteins, lipids, functional mRNAs, and microRNAs, and can be circulated to various recipient cells, leading to the production of local paracrine or distal systemic effects. Numerous studies have proved that exosomes can pass through the blood-brain barrier, thus, enabling the transfer of peripheral substances into the central nervous system (CNS). Consequently, exosomes may be a vital factor in the exchange of information between the periphery and CNS. This review will discuss the structure, biogenesis, and functional characterization of exosomes and summarize the role of peripheral exosomes deriving from tissues like the lung, gut, skeletal muscle, and various stem cell types in communicating with the CNS and influencing the brain's function. Then, we further discuss the potential therapeutic effects of exosomes in brain diseases and the clinical opportunities and challenges. Gaining a clearer insight into the communication between the CNS and the external areas of the body will help us to ascertain the role of the peripheral elements in the maintenance of brain health and illness and will facilitate the design of minimally invasive techniques for diagnosing and treating brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxiu Han
- Translational Pharmaceutical LaboratoryJining First People's HospitalShandong First Medical UniversityJiningP. R. China
- Institute of Translational PharmacyJining Medical Research AcademyJiningP. R. China
| | - Hailiang Zhang
- Translational Pharmaceutical LaboratoryJining First People's HospitalShandong First Medical UniversityJiningP. R. China
- Institute of Translational PharmacyJining Medical Research AcademyJiningP. R. China
| | - Lei Feng
- Department of NeurosurgeryJining First People's HospitalShandong First Medical UniversityJiningP. R. China
| | - Ruili Dang
- Translational Pharmaceutical LaboratoryJining First People's HospitalShandong First Medical UniversityJiningP. R. China
- Institute of Translational PharmacyJining Medical Research AcademyJiningP. R. China
| | - Jing Wang
- Translational Pharmaceutical LaboratoryJining First People's HospitalShandong First Medical UniversityJiningP. R. China
- Institute of Translational PharmacyJining Medical Research AcademyJiningP. R. China
| | - Changmeng Cui
- Department of NeurosurgeryAffiliated Hospital of Jining Medical UniversityJiningP. R. China
| | - Pei Jiang
- Translational Pharmaceutical LaboratoryJining First People's HospitalShandong First Medical UniversityJiningP. R. China
- Institute of Translational PharmacyJining Medical Research AcademyJiningP. R. China
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Minami S, Chikazu D, Ochiya T, Yoshioka Y. Extracellular vesicle-based liquid biopsies in cancer: Future biomarkers for oral cancer. Transl Oncol 2023; 38:101786. [PMID: 37713973 PMCID: PMC10509717 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2023.101786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Oral cancer is the sixth most common cancer worldwide, with approximately 530,000 new cases and 300,000 deaths each year. The process of carcinogenesis is complex, and survival rates have not changed significantly in recent decades. Early detection of cancer, prognosis prediction, treatment selection, and monitoring of progression are important to improve survival. With the recent significant advances in analytical technology, liquid biopsy has made it possible to achieve these goals. In this review, we report new results from clinical and cancer research applications of liquid biopsy, focusing on extracellular vesicles (EVs) among the major targets of liquid biopsy, namely, circulating tumor cells (CTCs), circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), and EVs. In addition, the potential application of EVs derived from gram-negative bacteria (outer membrane vesicles; OMVs) among oral bacteria, which have recently attracted much attention, to liquid biopsy for oral cancer will also be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakura Minami
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1, Nishishinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-0023, Japan; Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1, Nishishinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-0023, Japan
| | - Daichi Chikazu
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1, Nishishinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-0023, Japan
| | - Takahiro Ochiya
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1, Nishishinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-0023, Japan
| | - Yusuke Yoshioka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1, Nishishinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-0023, Japan.
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Hu J, Zhu J, Chai J, Zhao Y, Luan J, Wang Y. Application of exosomes as nanocarriers in cancer therapy. J Mater Chem B 2023; 11:10595-10612. [PMID: 37927220 DOI: 10.1039/d3tb01991h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Cancer remains the most common lethal disease in the world. Although the treatment choices for cancer are still limited, significant progress has been made over the past few years. By improving targeted drug therapy, drug delivery systems promoted the therapeutic effects of anti-cancer medications. Exosome is a kind of natural nanoscale delivery system with natural substance transport properties, good biocompatibility, and high tumor targeting, which shows great potential in drug carriers, thereby providing novel strategies for cancer therapy. In this review, we present the formation, distribution, and characteristics of exosomes. Besides, extraction and isolation techniques are discussed. We focus on the recent progress and application of exosomes in cancer therapy in four aspects: exosome-mediated gene therapy, chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, and combination therapy. The current challenges and future developments of exosome-mediated cancer therapy are also discussed. Finally, the latest advances in the application of exosomes as drug delivery carriers in cancer therapy are summarized, which provide practical value and guidance for the development of cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Hu
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Yijishan Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China.
| | - Junfei Zhu
- China-Japan Friendship Hospital, No. 2 Sakura East Street, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China
| | - Jingjing Chai
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Yijishan Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China.
| | - Yudie Zhao
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Yijishan Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China.
| | - Jiajie Luan
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Yijishan Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China.
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Yijishan Hospital of Wannan Medical College, Wuhu, China.
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Mu N, Li J, Zeng L, You J, Li R, Qin A, Liu X, Yan F, Zhou Z. Plant-Derived Exosome-Like Nanovesicles: Current Progress and Prospects. Int J Nanomedicine 2023; 18:4987-5009. [PMID: 37693885 PMCID: PMC10492547 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s420748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles, ranging in size from 30-150nm, which can be derived from various types of cells. In recent years, mammalian-derived exosomes have been extensively studied and found to play a crucial role in regulating intercellular communication, thereby influencing the development and progression of numerous diseases. Traditional Chinese medicine has employed plant-based remedies for thousands of years, and an increasing body of evidence suggests that plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNs) share similarities with mammalian-derived exosomes in terms of their structure and function. In this review, we provide an overview of recent advances in the study of PELNs and their potential implications for human health. Specifically, we summarize the roles of PELNs in respiratory, digestive, circulatory, and other diseases. Furthermore, we have extensively investigated the potential shortcomings and challenges in current research regarding the mechanism of action, safety, administration routes, isolation and extraction methods, characterization and identification techniques, as well as drug-loading capabilities. Based on these considerations, we propose recommendations for future research directions. Overall, our review highlights the potential of PELNs as a promising area of research, with broad implications for the treatment of human diseases. We anticipate continued interest in this area and hope that our summary of recent findings will stimulate further exploration into the implications of PELNs for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nai Mu
- Department of Clinical Medicine, North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China
- Geriatric Diseases Institute of Chengdu, Department of Orthopedics, Chengdu Fifth People’s Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jie Li
- Center for Medicine Research and Translation, Chengdu Fifth People’s Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Li Zeng
- Department of Pharmacy, Chengdu Fifth People’s Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Juan You
- Department of Pharmacy, Chengdu Fifth People’s Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Rong Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Chengdu Fifth People’s Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Anquan Qin
- Department of Pharmacy, Chengdu Fifth People’s Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xueping Liu
- Department of Clinical Medicine, North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Fang Yan
- Center for Medicine Research and Translation, Chengdu Fifth People’s Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China
- Geriatric Diseases Institute of Chengdu, Department of Geriatrics, Chengdu Fifth People’s Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zheng Zhou
- Department of Clinical Medicine, North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China
- Geriatric Diseases Institute of Chengdu, Department of Orthopedics, Chengdu Fifth People’s Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China
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Isolation of Extracellular Vesicles from Human Follicular Fluid: Size-Exclusion Chromatography versus Ultracentrifugation. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13020278. [PMID: 36830647 PMCID: PMC9953485 DOI: 10.3390/biom13020278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Follicular fluid (FF) is the microenvironment where a growing oocyte develops. Intrafollicular communication ensures oocyte competence and is carried out through paracrine signaling, the exchange of molecules via gap junctions, and the trafficking of extracellular vesicles (EVs). The study of FF-derived EVs is important for both translational and fundamental research in the female reproductive field. This study aimed to compare the efficacy and purity of two EV isolation methods: size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) and ultracentrifugation (UC). EVs isolated using SEC and UC were compared regarding their size and concentration using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA); protein contamination was assessed with microBCA; specific EV markers were detected with Western blot, and EV morphology was studied with transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Our results show that although both techniques isolated small EVs, a significantly increased yield in particle number was clear with UC compared with SEC. On the other hand, SEC generated purer EVs with fewer protein contaminants and aggregates. In conclusion, the selection of the most suited approach to isolate EVs must be conducted considering the degree of recovery, purity, and downstream application of the isolated EVs.
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Oveili E, Vafaei S, Bazavar H, Eslami Y, Mamaghanizadeh E, Yasamineh S, Gholizadeh O. The potential use of mesenchymal stem cells-derived exosomes as microRNAs delivery systems in different diseases. Cell Commun Signal 2023; 21:20. [PMID: 36690996 PMCID: PMC9869323 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-022-01017-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a group of small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression by targeting mRNA. Moreover, it has been shown that miRNAs expression are changed in various diseases, such as cancers, autoimmune disease, infectious diseases, and neurodegenerative Diseases. The suppression of miRNA function can be easily attained by utilizing of anti-miRNAs. In contrast, an enhancement in miRNA function can be achieved through the utilization of modified miRNA mimetics. The discovery of appropriate miRNA carriers in the body has become an interesting subject for investigators. Exosomes (EXOs) therapeutic efficiency and safety for transferring different cellular biological components to the recipient cell have attracted significant attention for their capability as miRNA carriers. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are recognized to generate a wide range of EXOs (MSC-EXOs), showing that MSCs may be effective for EXO generation in a clinically appropriate measure as compared to other cell origins. MSC-EXOs have been widely investigated because of their immune attributes, tumor-homing attributes, and flexible characteristics. In this article, we summarized the features of miRNAs and MSC-EXOs, including production, purification, and miRNA loading methods of MSC-EXOs, and the modification of MSC-EXOs for targeted miRNA delivery in various diseases. Video abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Oveili
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Azad Islamic University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Somayeh Vafaei
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Haniyeh Bazavar
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Yeganeh Eslami
- Faculty of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Ehsan Mamaghanizadeh
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Saman Yasamineh
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
| | - Omid Gholizadeh
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
- Department of Bacteriology and Virology, School of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
- Research Center for Clinical Virology, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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10
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Wang H, Yang Z, Ai S, Xiao J. Updated Methods of Extracellular Vesicles Isolation. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2023; 1418:3-14. [PMID: 37603269 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-99-1443-2_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are considered as cargo and mediate intercellular communication. As natural biological nanoparticles, EVs can be secreted by almost all kinds of cells and exist in biofluids such as milk, urine, blood, etc. In the past decades, several methods have been utilized to isolate EVs from cell culture medium, biofluids, and tissues. Here in this chapter, we summarized conventional and novel methods and fundamental procedures of EVs extraction and purification from different biofluids (plasma, urine, milk, and saliva) and tissues (brain, intestinal tissue, muscles, and heart). The present section also discusses how to choose appropriate methods to extract EVs from tissues based on downstream analysis. This chapter will expand the horizons of EVs isolation and purification from different mediums.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyun Wang
- Institute of Geriatrics (Shanghai University), Affiliated Nantong Hospital of Shanghai University (The Sixth People's Hospital of Nantong), School of Medicine, Shanghai University, Nantong, China
- Cardiac Regeneration and Ageing Lab, Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Life Science, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zijiang Yang
- Cardiac Regeneration and Ageing Lab, Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, School of Life Science, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Songwei Ai
- Institute of Geriatrics (Shanghai University), Affiliated Nantong Hospital of Shanghai University (The Sixth People's Hospital of Nantong), School of Medicine, Shanghai University, Nantong, China
| | - Junjie Xiao
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Organ Repair, School of Life Science, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China.
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Okamura A, Yoshioka Y, Saito Y, Ochiya T. Can Extracellular Vesicles as Drug Delivery Systems Be a Game Changer in Cardiac Disease? Pharm Res 2022; 40:889-908. [PMID: 36577860 PMCID: PMC10126064 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-022-03463-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac diseases such as myocardial infarction and heart failure have been the leading cause of death worldwide for more than 20 years, and new treatments continue to be investigated. Heart transplantation, a curative treatment for severe cardiac dysfunction, is available to only a small number of patients due to the rarity of donors and high costs. Cardiac regenerative medicine using embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells is expected to be a new alternative to heart transplantation, but it has problems such as induction of immune response, tumor formation, and low survival rate of transplanted cells. On the other hand, there has been a focus on cell-free therapy using extracellular vesicles (EVs) due to their high biocompatibility and target specificity. Exosomes, one type of EV, play a role in the molecular transport system in vivo and can be considered a drug delivery system (DDS) innate to all living things. Exosomes contain nucleic acids and proteins, which are transported from secretory cells to recipient cells. Molecules in exosomes are encapsulated in a lipid bilayer, which allows them to exist stably in body fluids without being affected by nuclease degradation enzymes. Therefore, the therapeutic use of exosomes as DDSs has been widely explored and is being used in clinical trials and other clinical settings. This review summarizes the current topics of EVs as DDSs in cardiac disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiko Okamura
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishishinjuku, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-0023, Japan.,Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Nara Medical University, 840 Shijo-Cho, Kashihara, Nara, 634-8522, Japan
| | - Yusuke Yoshioka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishishinjuku, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-0023, Japan
| | - Yoshihiko Saito
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Nara Medical University, 840 Shijo-Cho, Kashihara, Nara, 634-8522, Japan
| | - Takahiro Ochiya
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishishinjuku, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-0023, Japan.
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12
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Comparison of Different Isolation Methods for Plasma-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Patients with Hyperlipidemia. LIFE (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:life12111942. [PMID: 36431076 PMCID: PMC9692895 DOI: 10.3390/life12111942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles are commonly found in human body fluids and can reflect current physiological conditions of human body and act as biomarkers of disease. The quality of isolated extracellular vesicles facilitates the early diagnosis of various diseases accompanied by hyperlipidemia. Nonetheless, there are no reports on which special methods are suitable for isolating extracellular vesicles from the plasma of patients with hyperlipidemia. Thus, this study compared three different research-based extracellular vesicle isolation approaches, namely ultracentrifugation (UC), polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation, and size exclusion chromatography (SEC), and determined which of them was the most effective method. We selected blood samples from 12 patients with clinically diagnosed hyperlipidemia and isolated plasma-derived extracellular vesicles using three methods. The morphology of the isolated extracellular vesicles was observed using transmission electron microscopy, while the concentration was detected by asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation and multi-angle light scattering. Marker proteins were identified by Western blotting, and protein composition was evaluated by silver staining. Both determined the contaminations in the extracellular vesicle samples. The results showed that the three methods can be successfully used for the isolation of extracellular vesicles. The extracellular vesicles isolated by UC were larger in size, and the yield was much lower. Although the yield of extracellular vesicles isolated by PEG precipitation was greatly improved, the contamination was increased. Of the three methods, only the SEC-isolated extracellular vesicles were characterized by high yield and low contamination. Therefore, our data suggested that the SEC was a more ideal method for isolating extracellular vesicles from the plasma of patients with hyperlipidemia.
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13
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Wu Y, Wang Y, Lu Y, Luo X, Huang Y, Xie T, Pilarsky C, Dang Y, Zhang J. Microfluidic Technology for the Isolation and Analysis of Exosomes. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:1571. [PMID: 36295924 PMCID: PMC9607600 DOI: 10.3390/mi13101571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes are lipid-bilayer enclosed vesicles with diameters of 30-150 nm, which play a pivotal role in cell communication by transporting their cargoes such as proteins, lipids, and genetic materials. In recent years, exosomes have been under intense investigation, as they show great promise in numerous areas, especially as bio-markers in liquid biopsies. However, due to the high heterogeneity and the nano size of exosomes, the separation of exosomes is not easy. This review will deliver an outline of the conventional methods and the microfluidic-based technologies for exosome separation. Particular attention is devoted to microfluidic devices, highlighting the efficiency of exosome isolation by these methods. Additionally, this review will introduce advances made in the integrated microfluidics technologies that enable the separation and analysis of exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusong Wu
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology, NMPA and State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China
| | - Yuqing Wang
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology, NMPA and State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China
| | - Yanjun Lu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Micro/Nano Optomechatronics Engineering, College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Xiaomei Luo
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology, NMPA and State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China
| | - Yinghong Huang
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology, NMPA and State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China
| | - Ting Xie
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology, NMPA and State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China
| | - Christian Pilarsky
- Department of Surgery, Friedrich-Alexander University of Erlangen-Nuremberg (FAU), University Hospital of Erlangen, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Yuanye Dang
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology, NMPA and State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China
| | - Jianye Zhang
- Guangzhou Municipal and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Molecular Target & Clinical Pharmacology, NMPA and State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 511436, China
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14
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Current status and outlook of advances in exosome isolation. Anal Bioanal Chem 2022; 414:7123-7141. [PMID: 35962791 PMCID: PMC9375199 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-022-04253-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are extracellular vesicles with a diameter ranging from 30 to 150 nm, which are an important medium for intercellular communication and are closely related to the progression of certain diseases. Therefore, exosomes are considered promising biomarkers for the diagnosis of specific diseases, and thereby, treatments based on exosomes are being widely examined. For exosome-related research, a rapid, simple, high-purity, and recovery isolation method is the primary prerequisite for exosomal large-scale application in medical practice. Although there are no standardized methods for exosome separation and analysis, various techniques have been established to explore their biochemical and physicochemical properties. In this review, we analyzed the progress in exosomal isolation strategies and proposed our views on the development prospects of various exosomal isolation techniques.
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15
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Lättekivi F, Guljavina I, Midekessa G, Viil J, Heath PR, Bæk R, Jørgensen MM, Andronowska A, Kingo K, Fazeli A. Profiling Blood Serum Extracellular Vesicles in Plaque Psoriasis and Psoriatic Arthritis Patients Reveals Potential Disease Biomarkers. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23074005. [PMID: 35409365 PMCID: PMC9000144 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23074005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Psoriasis vulgaris (PsV) and psoriatic arthritis (PsA) are inflammatory diseases with unresolved pathophysiological aspects. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play an important role in intercellular communication. We compared the miRNA contents and surface proteome of the EVs in the blood serum of PsV and PsA patients to healthy controls. Size-exclusion chromatography was used to isolate EVs from the blood serum of 12 PsV patients, 12 PsA patients and 12 healthy control subjects. EV samples were characterized and RNA sequencing was used to identify differentially enriched EV-bound miRNAs. We found 212 differentially enriched EV-bound miRNAs present in both PsV and PsA groups—a total of 13 miRNAs at FDR ≤ 0.05. The predicted target genes of these miRNAs were significantly related to lesser known but potentially disease-relevant pathways. The EV array revealed that PsV patient EV samples were significantly enriched with CD9 EV-marker compared to controls. Analysis of EV-bound miRNAs suggests that signaling via EVs in the blood serum could play a role in the pathophysiological processes of PsV and PsA. EVs may be able to fill the void in clinically applicable diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for PsV and PsA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freddy Lättekivi
- Department of Pathophysiology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Ravila St. 14b, 50411 Tartu, Estonia; (F.L.); (I.G.); (G.M.)
| | - Irina Guljavina
- Department of Pathophysiology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Ravila St. 14b, 50411 Tartu, Estonia; (F.L.); (I.G.); (G.M.)
| | - Getnet Midekessa
- Department of Pathophysiology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Ravila St. 14b, 50411 Tartu, Estonia; (F.L.); (I.G.); (G.M.)
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 62, 51006 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Janeli Viil
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Ravila St. 14b, 50411 Tartu, Estonia;
| | - Paul R. Heath
- Sheffield Institute of Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2HQ, UK;
| | - Rikke Bæk
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Aalborg University Hospital, Urbansgade 32-36, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark; (R.B.); (M.M.J.)
| | - Malene Møller Jørgensen
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Aalborg University Hospital, Urbansgade 32-36, 9000 Aalborg, Denmark; (R.B.); (M.M.J.)
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Søndre Skovvej 15, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Aneta Andronowska
- Department of Hormonal Action Mechanisms, Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research, Polish Academy of Sciences, Tuwima St. 10, 10-748 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Kulli Kingo
- Clinic of Dermatology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tartu, Raja 31, 50417 Tartu, Estonia;
- Clinic of Dermatology, Tartu University Hospital, Raja 31, 50417 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Alireza Fazeli
- Department of Pathophysiology, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Ravila St. 14b, 50411 Tartu, Estonia; (F.L.); (I.G.); (G.M.)
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 62, 51006 Tartu, Estonia
- Academic Unit of Reproductive and Developmental Medicine, Department of Oncology and Metabolism, Medical School, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2SF, UK
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +372-737-4425
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16
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Ferreira D, Moreira JN, Rodrigues LR. New Advances in Exosome-based Targeted Drug Delivery Systems. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2022; 172:103628. [PMID: 35189326 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2022.103628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, various drug nano-delivery platforms have emerged to enhance drug effectiveness in cancer treatment. However, their successful translation to clinics have been hampered by unwanted side effects, as well as associated toxicity. Therefore, there is an imperative need for drug delivery vehicles capable of surpassing cellular barriers and also efficiently transfer therapeutic payloads to tumor cells. Exosomes, a class of small extracellular vesicles naturally released from all cells, have been exploited as a favorable delivery vehicle due to their natural role in intracellular communication and biocompatibility. In this review, information on exosome biogenesis, contents, forms of isolation and their natural functions is discussed, further complemented with the various successful methodologies for therapeutic payloads encapsulation, including distinct loading approaches. In addition, grafting of molecules to improve pharmacokinetics, tumor homing-ligands, as well as stimuli-responsive elements to enhance cell specificity are also debated. In the end, the current status of clinical-grade exosome-based therapies is outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora Ferreira
- CEB - Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - João Nuno Moreira
- CNC - Center for Neurosciences and Cell Biology, Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), University of Coimbra, Faculty of Medicine (Polo 1), Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Univ Coimbra - University of Coimbra, CIBB, Faculty of Pharmacy, Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Lígia R Rodrigues
- CEB - Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal.
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17
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Quantitative proteomic analysis of serum-purified exosomes identifies putative pre-eclampsia-associated biomarkers. Clin Proteomics 2022; 19:5. [PMID: 35144530 PMCID: PMC8903615 DOI: 10.1186/s12014-022-09342-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The high incidence of pre-eclampsia, which affects 2-7% of all pregnancies, remains a major health concern. Detection of pre-eclampsia before the appearance of clinical symptoms is essential to allow early intervention, and would benefit from identification of plasma/serum biomarkers to help guide diagnosis and treatment. Liquid biopsy has emerged as a promising source of protein biomarkers that circumvents some of the inherent challenges of proteome-wide analysis of plasma/serum. In this respect, purified exosomes have the added benefit of being carriers of intercellular communication both in physiological and pathological conditions. METHODS We compared the protein complement of purified exosomes from three different collections of control and pre-eclamptic serum samples, obtained at the end of the second trimester of pregnancy and at delivery. We employed shotgun label-free proteomics to investigate differential protein expression, which was then validated by targeted proteomics. RESULTS We developed a purification method that yielded highly enriched exosome preparations. The presence of specific pregnancy protein markers suggested that a significant proportion of purified exosomes derived from tissues related to pregnancy. Quantitative proteomic analyses allowed us to identify 10, 114 and 98 differentially-regulated proteins in the three sample collections, with a high degree of concordance. Functional analysis suggested that these proteins participate in biological processes related to pre-eclampsia, including angiogenesis, inflammation and cell migration. The differential abundance of 66 proteins was validated by targeted proteomics. Finally, we studied the impact of the pre-eclampsia-associated exosomes in the proteome using an in vitro cellular model. CONCLUSIONS We have identified and validated differential exosomal proteins in liquid biopsy of pregnant women that open new possibilities for early detection of pre-eclampsia. Additionally, the functional impact of the proteome composition of purified pre-eclamptic exosomes in target cells provides new information to better understand changes in embryo-maternal interactions and, consequently, the pathogenesis of this disease.
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18
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Akbar A, Malekian F, Baghban N, Kodam SP, Ullah M. Methodologies to Isolate and Purify Clinical Grade Extracellular Vesicles for Medical Applications. Cells 2022; 11:186. [PMID: 35053301 PMCID: PMC8774122 DOI: 10.3390/cells11020186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of extracellular vesicles (EV) in nano drug delivery has been demonstrated in many previous studies. In this study, we discuss the sources of extracellular vesicles, including plant, salivary and urinary sources which are easily available but less sought after compared with blood and tissue. Extensive research in the past decade has established that the breadth of EV applications is wide. However, the efforts on standardizing the isolation and purification methods have not brought us to a point that can match the potential of extracellular vesicles for clinical use. The standardization can open doors for many researchers and clinicians alike to experiment with the proposed clinical uses with lesser concerns regarding untraceable side effects. It can make it easier to identify the mechanism of therapeutic benefits and to track the mechanism of any unforeseen effects observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asma Akbar
- Institute for Immunity and Transplantation, Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
| | - Farzaneh Malekian
- Institute for Immunity and Transplantation, Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
| | - Neda Baghban
- Institute for Immunity and Transplantation, Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
| | - Sai Priyanka Kodam
- Institute for Immunity and Transplantation, Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
| | - Mujib Ullah
- Institute for Immunity and Transplantation, Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
- Department of Cancer Immunology, Genentech Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
- Molecular Medicine Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
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19
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Challenges for the Development of Extracellular Vesicle-Based Nucleic Acid Medicines. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13236137. [PMID: 34885247 PMCID: PMC8656933 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13236137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleic acid drugs, such as siRNAs, antisense oligonucleotides, and miRNAs, exert their therapeutic effects by causing genetic changes in cells. However, there are various limitations in their delivery to target organs and cells, making their application to cancer treatment difficult. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer particles that are released from most cells, are stable in the blood, and have low immunogenicity. Methods using EVs to deliver nucleic acid drugs to target organs are rapidly being developed that take advantage of these properties. There are two main methods for loading nucleic acid drugs into EVs. One is to genetically engineer the parent cell and load the target gene into the EV, and the other is to isolate EVs and then load them with the nucleic acid drug. Target organ delivery methods include passive targeting using the enhanced permeation and retention effect of EVs and active targeting in which EVs are modified with antibodies, peptides, or aptamers to enhance their accumulation in tumors. In this review, we summarize the advantages of EVs as a drug delivery system for nucleic acid drugs, the methods of loading nucleic acid drugs into EVs, and the targeting of EVs to target organs.
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20
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Potential Applications and Functional Roles of Exosomes in Cardiometabolic Disease. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13122056. [PMID: 34959338 PMCID: PMC8703910 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13122056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite diagnostic and therapeutic advances, cardiometabolic disease remains the leading cause of death worldwide. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), which include exosomes and microvesicles, have gained particular interest because of their role in metabolic homeostasis and cardiovascular physiology. Indeed, EVs are recognized as critical mediators of intercellular communication in the cardiovascular system. Exosomes are naturally occurring nanocarriers that transfer biological information in the setting of metabolic abnormalities and cardiac dysfunction. The study of these EVs can increase our knowledge on the pathophysiological mechanisms of metabolic disorders and their cardiovascular complications. Because of their inherent properties and composition, exosomes have been proposed as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers and therapeutics for specific targeting and drug delivery. Emerging fields of study explore the use exosomes as tools for gene therapy and as a cell-free alternative for regenerative medicine. Furthermore, innovative biomaterials can incorporate exosomes to enhance tissue regeneration and engineering. In this work, we summarize the most recent knowledge on the role of exosomes in cardiometabolic pathophysiology while highlighting their potential therapeutic applications.
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21
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Ishraq Bari SM, Hossain FB, Nestorova GG. Advances in Biosensors Technology for Detection and Characterization of Extracellular Vesicles. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:7645. [PMID: 34833721 PMCID: PMC8621354 DOI: 10.3390/s21227645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes are extracellular vehicles (EVs) that encapsulate genomic and proteomic material from the cell of origin that can be used as biomarkers for non-invasive disease diagnostics in point of care settings. The efficient and accurate detection, quantification, and molecular profiling of exosomes are crucial for the accurate identification of disease biomarkers. Conventional isolation methods, while well-established, provide the co-purification of proteins and other types of EVs. Exosome purification, characterization, and OMICS analysis are performed separately, which increases the complexity, duration, and cost of the process. Due to these constraints, the point-of-care and personalized analysis of exosomes are limited in clinical settings. Lab-on-a-chip biosensing has enabled the integration of isolation and characterization processes in a single platform. The presented review discusses recent advancements in biosensing technology for the separation and detection of exosomes. Fluorescent, colorimetric, electrochemical, magnetic, and surface plasmon resonance technologies have been developed for the quantification of exosomes in biological fluids. Size-exclusion filtration, immunoaffinity, electroactive, and acoustic-fluid-based technologies were successfully applied for the on-chip isolation of exosomes. The advancement of biosensing technology for the detection of exosomes provides better sensitivity and a reduced signal-to-noise ratio. The key challenge for the integration of clinical settings remains the lack of capabilities for on-chip genomic and proteomic analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Faria Binte Hossain
- Molecular Science and Nanotechnology, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, USA;
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22
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Review of Methodological Approaches to Human Milk Small Extracellular Vesicle Proteomics. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11060833. [PMID: 34204944 PMCID: PMC8228857 DOI: 10.3390/biom11060833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteomics can map extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, across disease states between organisms and cell types. Due to the diverse origin and cargo of EVs, tailoring methodological and analytical techniques can support the reproducibility of results. Proteomics scans are sensitive to in-sample contaminants, which can be retained during EV isolation procedures. Contaminants can also arise from the biological origin of exosomes, such as the lipid-rich environment in human milk. Human milk (HM) EVs and exosomes are emerging as a research interest in health and disease, though the experimental characterization and functional assays remain varied. Past studies of HM EV proteomes have used data-dependent acquisition methods for protein detection, however, improvements in data independent acquisition could allow for previously undetected EV proteins to be identified by mass spectrometry. Depending on the research question, only a specific population of proteins can be compared and measured using isotope and other labelling techniques. In this review, we summarize published HM EV proteomics protocols and suggest a methodological workflow with the end-goal of effective and reproducible analysis of human milk EV proteomes.
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23
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Gao X, Shao L, Ge X, Zhang L, Chen D, He R. The Potential Role of Serum Exosomes in Preeclampsia. Curr Drug Metab 2021; 21:352-356. [PMID: 32484101 DOI: 10.2174/1389200221666200525152441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2019] [Revised: 01/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Preeclampsia is a serious pregnancy-specific disease that affects about 5%-8% of pregnant women and is the main reason for the increase in maternal and perinatal mortality. Due to unknown etiology, preeclampsia is still the main cause of increased mortality in maternal and perinatal infants, which is mainly manifested by new hypertension after 20 weeks of pregnancy. As the pathogenesis has not been fully elucidated, early diagnosis and full treatment are lacking. Exosomes secreted from the placenta to the peripheral circulation may be involved in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia and can be detected from the plasma of pregnant women after 6 weeks of pregnancy. Related studies have shown that the levels of exosomes in preeclampsia have changed, and the protein and miRNA expression profiles are also different. Therefore, monitoring changes in plasma exosomes and expression profiles may provide new ideas and new perspectives for the prediction, diagnosis and treatment of preeclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuelin Gao
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Lulu Shao
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xinying Ge
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Long Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Dexin Chen
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Third Hospital of Xian, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Rongxia He
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
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24
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Yan H, Li Y, Cheng S, Zeng Y. Advances in Analytical Technologies for Extracellular Vesicles. Anal Chem 2021; 93:4739-4774. [PMID: 33635060 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c00693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- He Yan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Yutao Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Shibo Cheng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Yong Zeng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States.,University of Florida Health Cancer Center, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
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Almiñana C, Rudolf Vegas A, Tekin M, Hassan M, Uzbekov R, Fröhlich T, Bollwein H, Bauersachs S. Isolation and Characterization of Equine Uterine Extracellular Vesicles: A Comparative Methodological Study. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22020979. [PMID: 33478136 PMCID: PMC7835857 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22020979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been identified in the uterine fluid in different species and have been pointed as key players in the embryo-maternal dialogue, maternal recognition of pregnancy and establishment of pregnancy. However, little is known about the uterine EVs in the mare. Therefore, the present study aimed at characterizing EVs from uterine lavage of cyclic mares by comparing five EVs isolation methods and the combination of them: (1) ultracentrifugation (UC); (2) concentration of lavage volume by Centricon ultrafiltration (CE); (3) the use of CE with different washing steps (phosphate-buffered saline with or without trehalose); (4) size-exclusion chromatography with iZON-qEV columns, and (5) a combination of the methods with best results based on EVs yield, purity, and protein cargo profiles. Transmission electron microscopy and Western blotting confirmed the isolation of EVs by all methods but with quantitative and qualitative differences. Mass spectrometry provided differences in protein profiles between methods, number of identified proteins, and protein classes. Our results indicate that the combination of CE/trehalose/iZON/UC is an optimal method to isolate equine uterine EVs with good yield and purity that can be applied in future studies to determine the role of equine uterine EVs in embryo-maternal interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Almiñana
- Functional Genomics Group, Institute of Veterinary Anatomy, Vetsuisse Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, 8315 Lindau, Switzerland; (A.R.V.); (S.B.)
- UMR85 PRC, INRAE, CNRS 7247, Université de Tours, IFCE, 37380 Nouzilly, France
- Correspondence:
| | - Alba Rudolf Vegas
- Functional Genomics Group, Institute of Veterinary Anatomy, Vetsuisse Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, 8315 Lindau, Switzerland; (A.R.V.); (S.B.)
- Clinic of Reproductive Medicine, Department for Farm Animals, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.T.); (M.H.); (H.B.)
| | - Muhittin Tekin
- Clinic of Reproductive Medicine, Department for Farm Animals, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.T.); (M.H.); (H.B.)
| | - Mubbashar Hassan
- Clinic of Reproductive Medicine, Department for Farm Animals, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.T.); (M.H.); (H.B.)
| | - Rustem Uzbekov
- Laboratoire Biologie Cellulaire et Microscopie Electronique, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Tours, 37032 Tours, France;
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia
| | - Thomas Fröhlich
- Gene Center, Laboratory for Functional Genome Analysis, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany;
| | - Heinrich Bollwein
- Clinic of Reproductive Medicine, Department for Farm Animals, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland; (M.T.); (M.H.); (H.B.)
| | - Stefan Bauersachs
- Functional Genomics Group, Institute of Veterinary Anatomy, Vetsuisse Faculty Zurich, University of Zurich, 8315 Lindau, Switzerland; (A.R.V.); (S.B.)
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Tang Y, Zhou Y, Li HJ. Advances in mesenchymal stem cell exosomes: a review. Stem Cell Res Ther 2021; 12:71. [PMID: 33468232 PMCID: PMC7814175 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-021-02138-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Stem cells can be used for regenerative medicine and as treatments for disease. The application of tissue engineering-related transplantation, stem cells, and local changes in the microenvironment is expected to solve major medical problems. Currently, most studies focus on tissue repair and regeneration, and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are among the most common research topics. MSCs are applicable as seed cells, and they represent one of the current hot topics in regenerative medicine research. However, due to storage limitations and because cell senescence occurs during in vitro expansion, their clinical application is challenging. Exosomes, which are secreted by MSCs through paracrine signalling, not only have the same effects as MSCs, but they also have the advantages of targeted delivery, low immunogenicity, and high repairability. This article reviews the acquisition methods, characteristics, biological functions, and clinical applications of exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaya Tang
- Key Laboratory of Vaccine Research and Development for Major Infectious Diseases of Yunnan Province, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, 650118 People’s Republic of China
- Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650500 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yan Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Vaccine Research and Development for Major Infectious Diseases of Yunnan Province, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, 650118 People’s Republic of China
| | - Hong-Jun Li
- Key Laboratory of Vaccine Research and Development for Major Infectious Diseases of Yunnan Province, Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, 650118 People’s Republic of China
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Mosaad E, Peiris HN, Holland O, Morean Garcia I, Mitchell MD. The Role(s) of Eicosanoids and Exosomes in Human Parturition. Front Physiol 2020; 11:594313. [PMID: 33424622 PMCID: PMC7786405 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.594313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The roles that eicosanoids play during pregnancy and parturition are crucial to a successful outcome. A better understanding of the regulation of eicosanoid production and the roles played by the various end products during pregnancy and parturition has led to our view that accurate measurements of a panel of those end products has exciting potential as diagnostics and prognostics of preterm labor and delivery. Exosomes and their contents represent an exciting new area for research of movement of key biological factors circulating between tissues and organs akin to a parallel endocrine system but involving key intracellular mediators. Eicosanoids and enzymes regulating their biosynthesis and metabolism as well as regulatory microRNAs have been identified within exosomes. In this review, the regulation of eicosanoid production, abundance and actions during pregnancy will be explored. Additionally, the functional significance of placental exosomes will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eman Mosaad
- School of Biomedical Science, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation – Centre for Children’s Health Research, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Hassendrini N. Peiris
- School of Biomedical Science, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation – Centre for Children’s Health Research, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Olivia Holland
- School of Biomedical Science, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation – Centre for Children’s Health Research, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Southport, QLD, Australia
| | - Isabella Morean Garcia
- School of Biomedical Science, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation – Centre for Children’s Health Research, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Murray D. Mitchell
- School of Biomedical Science, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation – Centre for Children’s Health Research, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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29
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Klyachko NL, Arzt CJ, Li SM, Gololobova OA, Batrakova EV. Extracellular Vesicle-Based Therapeutics: Preclinical and Clinical Investigations. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:E1171. [PMID: 33271883 PMCID: PMC7760239 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12121171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug nanoformulations hold remarkable promise for the efficient delivery of therapeutics to a disease site. Unfortunately, artificial nanocarriers, mostly liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles, show limited applications due to the unfavorable pharmacokinetics and rapid clearance from the blood circulation by the reticuloendothelial system (RES). Besides, many of them have high cytotoxicity, low biodegradability, and the inability to cross biological barriers, including the blood brain barrier. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are novel candidates for drug delivery systems with high bioavailability, exceptional biocompatibility, and low immunogenicity. They provide a means for intercellular communication and the transmission of bioactive compounds to targeted tissues, cells, and organs. These features have made them increasingly attractive as a therapeutic platform in recent years. However, there are many obstacles to designing EV-based therapeutics. In this review, we will outline the main hurdles and limitations for therapeutic and clinical applications of drug loaded EV formulations and describe various attempts to solve these problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia L. Klyachko
- Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (N.L.K.); (O.A.G.)
- Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (C.J.A.); (S.M.L.)
| | - Camryn J. Arzt
- Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (C.J.A.); (S.M.L.)
| | - Samuel M. Li
- Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (C.J.A.); (S.M.L.)
| | - Olesia A. Gololobova
- Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (N.L.K.); (O.A.G.)
- Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (C.J.A.); (S.M.L.)
| | - Elena V. Batrakova
- Center for Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (N.L.K.); (O.A.G.)
- Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; (C.J.A.); (S.M.L.)
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Mallia A, Gianazza E, Zoanni B, Brioschi M, Barbieri SS, Banfi C. Proteomics of Extracellular Vesicles: Update on Their Composition, Biological Roles and Potential Use as Diagnostic Tools in Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Diseases. Diagnostics (Basel) 2020; 10:diagnostics10100843. [PMID: 33086718 PMCID: PMC7588996 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics10100843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bound vesicles released from cells under physiological and pathological conditions. Basing on biogenesis, dimension, content and route of secretion, they can be classified into exosomes, microvesicles (MVs) and apoptotic bodies. EVs have a key role as bioactive mediators in intercellular communication, but they are also involved in other physiological processes like immune response, blood coagulation, and tissue repair. The interest in studying EVs has increased over the years due to their involvement in several diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), and their potential role as biomarkers in diagnosis, therapy, and in drug delivery system development. Nowadays, the improvement of mass spectrometry (MS)-based techniques allows the characterization of the EV protein composition to deeply understand their role in several diseases. In this review, a critical overview is provided on the EV’s origin and physical properties, as well as their emerging functional role in both physiological and disease conditions, focusing attention on the role of exosomes in CVDs. The most important cardiac exosome proteomic studies will be discussed giving a qualitative and quantitative characterization of the exosomal proteins that could be used in future as new potential diagnostic markers or targets for specific therapies.
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Sidhom K, Obi PO, Saleem A. A Review of Exosomal Isolation Methods: Is Size Exclusion Chromatography the Best Option? Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E6466. [PMID: 32899828 PMCID: PMC7556044 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 307] [Impact Index Per Article: 76.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 08/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous vesicles secreted by both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and play a vital role in intercellular communication. EVs are classified into several subtypes based on their origin, physical characteristics, and biomolecular makeup. Exosomes, a subtype of EVs, are released by the fusion of multivesicular bodies (MVB) with the plasma membrane of the cell. Several methods have been described in literature to isolate exosomes from biofluids including blood, urine, milk, and cell culture media, among others. While differential ultracentrifugation (dUC) has been widely used to isolate exosomes, other techniques including ultrafiltration, precipitating agents such as poly-ethylene glycol (PEG), immunoaffinity capture, microfluidics, and size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) have emerged as credible alternatives with pros and cons associated with each. In this review, we provide a summary of commonly used exosomal isolation techniques with a focus on SEC as an ideal methodology. We evaluate the efficacy of SEC to isolate exosomes from an array of biological fluids, with a particular focus on its application to adipose tissue-derived exosomes. We argue that exosomes isolated via SEC are relatively pure and functional, and that this methodology is reproducible, scalable, inexpensive, and does not require specialized equipment or user expertise. However, it must be noted that while SEC is a good candidate method to isolate exosomes, direct comparative studies are required to support this conclusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karim Sidhom
- Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P5, Canada;
- Diabetes Research Envisioned and Accomplished in Manitoba (DREAM) Research Theme of CHRIM, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4, Canada;
- Biology of Breathing Research Theme of CHRIM, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4, Canada
- Children’s Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba (CHRIM), Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4, Canada
| | - Patience O. Obi
- Diabetes Research Envisioned and Accomplished in Manitoba (DREAM) Research Theme of CHRIM, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4, Canada;
- Biology of Breathing Research Theme of CHRIM, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4, Canada
- Children’s Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba (CHRIM), Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4, Canada
- Applied Health Sciences, Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
- Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Ayesha Saleem
- Diabetes Research Envisioned and Accomplished in Manitoba (DREAM) Research Theme of CHRIM, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4, Canada;
- Biology of Breathing Research Theme of CHRIM, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4, Canada
- Children’s Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba (CHRIM), Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4, Canada
- Applied Health Sciences, Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
- Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
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Extracellular vesicles as natural therapeutic agents and innate drug delivery systems for cancer treatment: Recent advances, current obstacles, and challenges for clinical translation. Semin Cancer Biol 2020; 80:340-355. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2020.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Wang YT, Shi T, Srivastava S, Kagan J, Liu T, Rodland KD. Proteomic Analysis of Exosomes for Discovery of Protein Biomarkers for Prostate and Bladder Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12092335. [PMID: 32825017 PMCID: PMC7564640 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12092335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are released by nearly all cell types as part of normal cell physiology, transporting biological cargo, including nucleic acids and proteins, across the cell membrane. In pathological states such as cancer, EV-derived cargo may mirror the altered state of the cell of origin. Exosomes are the smaller, 50–150 nanometer-sized EVs released from fusion of multivesicular endosomes with the plasma membrane. Exosomes play important roles in cell-cell communication and participate in multiple cancer processes, including invasion and metastasis. Therefore, proteomic analysis of exosomes is a promising approach to discover potential cancer biomarkers, even though it is still at an early stage. Herein, we critically review the advances in exosome isolation methods and their compatibility with mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomic analysis, as well as studies of exosomes in pathogenesis and progression of prostate and bladder cancer, two common urologic cancers whose incidence rates continue to rise annually. As urological tumors, both urine and blood samples are feasible for noninvasive or minimally invasive analysis. A better understanding of the biological cargo and functions of exosomes via high-throughput proteomics will help provide new insights into complex alterations in cancer and provide potential therapeutic targets and personalized treatment for patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ting Wang
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, USA; (Y.-T.W.); (T.S.)
| | - Tujin Shi
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, USA; (Y.-T.W.); (T.S.)
| | - Sudhir Srivastava
- Cancer Biomarkers Research Group, Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (S.S.); (J.K.)
| | - Jacob Kagan
- Cancer Biomarkers Research Group, Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (S.S.); (J.K.)
| | - Tao Liu
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, USA; (Y.-T.W.); (T.S.)
- Correspondence: (T.L.); (K.D.R.)
| | - Karin D. Rodland
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, USA; (Y.-T.W.); (T.S.)
- Department of Cell, Developmental, and Cancer Biology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97201, USA
- Correspondence: (T.L.); (K.D.R.)
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Gao X, Shao L, Ge X, Zhang L, Chen D, He R. The Potential Role of Serum Exosomes in Preeclampsia. Curr Drug Metab 2020. [DOI: 10.2174/1389200221666200525152441 dali liu (guest editor) loyola university chicago, chicago, il 60660, usa xiangkai li (guest editor) school of life sciences, lanzhou university, gansu] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Preeclampsia is a serious pregnancy-specific disease that affects about 5%-8% of pregnant women and is
the main reason for the increase in maternal and perinatal mortality. Due to unknown etiology, preeclampsia is still
the main cause of increased mortality in maternal and perinatal infants, which is mainly manifested by new
hypertension after 20 weeks of pregnancy. As the pathogenesis has not been fully elucidated, early diagnosis and full
treatment are lacking. Exosomes secreted from the placenta to the peripheral circulation may be involved in the
pathogenesis of preeclampsia and can be detected from the plasma of pregnant women after 6 weeks of pregnancy.
Related studies have shown that the levels of exosomes in preeclampsia have changed, and the protein and miRNA
expression profiles are also different. Therefore, monitoring changes in plasma exosomes and expression profiles
may provide new ideas and new perspectives for the prediction, diagnosis and treatment of preeclampsia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuelin Gao
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Lulu Shao
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xinying Ge
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Long Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Dexin Chen
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Rongxia He
- Department of Obstetrics, Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Second Clinical Medical College of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China
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Peng H, Ji W, Zhao R, Yang J, Lu Z, Li Y, Zhang X. Exosome: a significant nano-scale drug delivery carrier. J Mater Chem B 2020; 8:7591-7608. [PMID: 32697267 DOI: 10.1039/d0tb01499k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, due to the limitations of the nature of therapeutic agents, many synthetic nano-delivery systems have emerged to enhance the efficacy of drugs. Extracellular vesicles are currently a class of natural nano-scale drug carriers released by cells. As a tiny vesicle with a lipid bilayer membrane that can be secreted by most cells in the body, exosomes carry and transmit important signal molecules, Therefore, they have been a research hotspot in biomedicine and biomaterials due to their size advantages and huge potential in drug therapy. Many people are optimistic about the clinical application prospects of exosomes and are actively exploring the broad functions of exosomes and developing exosome therapeutic agents to make positive contributions to human health. In this review, we provide basic knowledge and focus on summarizing the advantages of exosomes as drug carriers, methods of loading drugs, targeting strategies, in vivo and in vitro tracing methods, and some of the latest developments in exosomes as drug carriers. In particular, the review provides an outlook for this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.
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de Pontes LG, Altei WF, Galan A, Bilić P, Guillemin N, Kuleš J, Horvatić A, Ribeiro LNDM, de Paula E, Pereira VBR, Lucheis SB, Mrljak V, Eckersall PD, Ferreira RS, Dos Santos LD. Extracellular vesicles in infectious diseases caused by protozoan parasites in buffaloes. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2020; 26:e20190067. [PMID: 32528536 PMCID: PMC7262785 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small membrane-bound vesicles of growing interest in vetetinary parasitology. The aim of the present report was to provide the first isolation, quantification and protein characterization of EVs from buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) sera infected with Theileria spp. Methods Infected animals were identified through optical microscopy and PCR. EVs were isolated from buffalo sera by size-exclusion chromatography and characterized using western blotting analysis, nanoparticle tracking analysis and transmission electron microscopy. Subsequently, the proteins from isolated vesicles were characterized by mass spectrometry. Results EVs from buffalo sera have shown sizes in the 124-140 nm range and 306 proteins were characterized. The protein-protein interaction analysis has evidenced biological processes and molecular function associated with signal transduction, binding, regulation of metabolic processes, transport, catalytic activity and response to acute stress. Five proteins have been shown to be differentially expressed between the control group and that infected with Theileria spp., all acting in the oxidative stress pathway. Conclusions EVs from buffaloes infected with Theileria spp. were successfully isolated and characterized. This is an advance in the knowledge of host-parasite relationship that contributes to the understanding of host immune response and theileriosis evasion mechanisms. These findings may pave the way for searching new EVs candidate-markers for a better production of safe biological products derived from buffaloes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leticia Gomes de Pontes
- Graduate Program in Tropical Diseases, Botucatu Medical School (FMB), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Wanessa Fernanda Altei
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Asier Galan
- ERA Chair Team (VetMedZg), Clinic for Internal Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Petra Bilić
- ERA Chair Team (VetMedZg), Clinic for Internal Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Nicolas Guillemin
- ERA Chair Team (VetMedZg), Clinic for Internal Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Josipa Kuleš
- ERA Chair Team (VetMedZg), Clinic for Internal Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Anita Horvatić
- ERA Chair Team (VetMedZg), Clinic for Internal Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Lígia Nunes de Morais Ribeiro
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Eneida de Paula
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | - Vladimir Mrljak
- ERA Chair Team (VetMedZg), Clinic for Internal Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Peter David Eckersall
- ERA Chair Team (VetMedZg), Clinic for Internal Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.,Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom, UK
| | - Rui Seabra Ferreira
- Graduate Program in Tropical Diseases, Botucatu Medical School (FMB), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, SP, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Clinical Research, Botucatu Medical School (FMB), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, SP, Brazil.,Center for the Study of Venoms and Venomous Animals (CEVAP), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Lucilene Delazari Dos Santos
- Graduate Program in Tropical Diseases, Botucatu Medical School (FMB), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, SP, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Clinical Research, Botucatu Medical School (FMB), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, SP, Brazil.,Center for the Study of Venoms and Venomous Animals (CEVAP), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, SP, Brazil
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Yang D, Zhang W, Zhang H, Zhang F, Chen L, Ma L, Larcher LM, Chen S, Liu N, Zhao Q, Tran PH, Chen C, Veedu RN, Wang T. Progress, opportunity, and perspective on exosome isolation - efforts for efficient exosome-based theranostics. Theranostics 2020; 10:3684-3707. [PMID: 32206116 PMCID: PMC7069071 DOI: 10.7150/thno.41580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 460] [Impact Index Per Article: 115.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles with diameters of 30-150 nm. In both physiological and pathological conditions, nearly all types of cells can release exosomes, which play important roles in cell communication and epigenetic regulation by transporting crucial protein and genetic materials such as miRNA, mRNA, and DNA. Consequently, exosome-based disease diagnosis and therapeutic methods have been intensively investigated. However, as in any natural science field, the in-depth investigation of exosomes relies heavily on technological advances. Historically, the two main technical hindrances that have restricted the basic and applied researches of exosomes include, first, how to simplify the extraction and improve the yield of exosomes and, second, how to effectively distinguish exosomes from other extracellular vesicles, especially functional microvesicles. Over the past few decades, although a standardized exosome isolation method has still not become available, a number of techniques have been established through exploration of the biochemical and physicochemical features of exosomes. In this work, by comprehensively analyzing the progresses in exosome separation strategies, we provide a panoramic view of current exosome isolation techniques, providing perspectives toward the development of novel approaches for high-efficient exosome isolation from various types of biological matrices. In addition, from the perspective of exosome-based diagnosis and therapeutics, we emphasize the issue of quantitative exosome and microvesicle separation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongbin Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery of Hebi People's Hospital; Hebi Neuroanatomical Laboratory, Hebi, 458030, China
| | - Weihong Zhang
- School of Nursing, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Huanyun Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery of Hebi People's Hospital; Hebi Neuroanatomical Laboratory, Hebi, 458030, China
| | - Fengqiu Zhang
- Henan Key Laboratory of Ion-beam Bioengineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China, 450000
| | - Lanmei Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Research and Development of Nature Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang 524023, China
| | - Lixia Ma
- School of Statistics, Henan University of Economics and Law, Zhengzhou 450046, China
| | - Leon M. Larcher
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Innovative Therapeutics, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Australia
| | - Suxiang Chen
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Innovative Therapeutics, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Australia
| | - Nan Liu
- General Practice Centre, Nanhai Hospital, Southern Medical University, 528244, Foshan, China
| | - Qingxia Zhao
- School of Medicine, Wake Forest University, Winston Salem, NC 27101, USA
| | - Phuong H.L. Tran
- School of Medicine, and Centre for Molecular and Medical Research, Deakin University, 3216, Australia
| | - Changying Chen
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Zheng Zhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Rakesh N Veedu
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Innovative Therapeutics, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Australia
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Perth 6009, Australia
| | - Tao Wang
- School of Nursing, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Innovative Therapeutics, Murdoch University, Perth 6150, Australia
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Perth 6009, Australia
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38
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Zhang Y, Mao Y, Zhao W, Su T, Zhong Y, Fu L, Zhu J, Cheng J, Yang H. Glyco-CPLL: An Integrated Method for In-Depth and Comprehensive N-Glycoproteome Profiling of Human Plasma. J Proteome Res 2019; 19:655-666. [PMID: 31860302 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.9b00557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yong Zhang
- Key Lab of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, MOH, West China-Washington Mitochondria and Metabolism Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yonghong Mao
- Key Lab of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, MOH, West China-Washington Mitochondria and Metabolism Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Thoracic Surgery Research Laboratory, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Wanjun Zhao
- Department of Thyroid Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Tao Su
- Key Lab of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, MOH, West China-Washington Mitochondria and Metabolism Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yi Zhong
- Key Lab of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, MOH, West China-Washington Mitochondria and Metabolism Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Linru Fu
- Department of Thyroid Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Jingqiang Zhu
- Department of Thyroid Surgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Jingqiu Cheng
- Key Lab of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, MOH, West China-Washington Mitochondria and Metabolism Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Hao Yang
- Key Lab of Transplant Engineering and Immunology, MOH, West China-Washington Mitochondria and Metabolism Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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