1
|
Pappadà M, Melija S, Facchini M, Martino M, Minarini S, Caproni A, Nordi C, Rimessi P, Selvatici R, Marconi P. Generation of a human induced pluripotent stem cell line (UNIFEi001-A) from a patient with Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1). Stem Cell Res 2025; 83:103637. [PMID: 39892158 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2024.103637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2024] [Revised: 12/10/2024] [Accepted: 12/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2025] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1) is one of six SCAs related to the expansion of a CAG repeat, encoding glutamine. Induced pluripotent stem cells were generated by reprogramming fibroblasts isolated from a patient affected by SCA1, through the transduction of three viral vectors derived from a non-integrative virus. UNIFEi001-A cell line presents an ESC-like morphology, is vector-free, expresses pluripotency markers, presents a normal karyotype and can differentiate into the three germ layers. These cells can be further differentiated into neural stem cells and neurons to serve as a cellular model.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mariangela Pappadà
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Sara Melija
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Martina Facchini
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Mara Martino
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Sofia Minarini
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Anna Caproni
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Chiara Nordi
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Paola Rimessi
- Unit of Medical Genetics, Department of Medical Sciences, University Hospital of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Rita Selvatici
- Unit of Medical Genetics, Department of Medical Sciences, University Hospital of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Peggy Marconi
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; Technopole of Ferrara, LTTA Laboratory for Advanced Therapies, Ferrara 44121, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Henriques C, Lopes MM, Silva AC, Lobo DD, Badin RA, Hantraye P, Pereira de Almeida L, Nobre RJ. Viral-based animal models in polyglutamine disorders. Brain 2024; 147:1166-1189. [PMID: 38284949 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awae012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Polyglutamine disorders are a complex group of incurable neurodegenerative disorders caused by an abnormal expansion in the trinucleotide cytosine-adenine-guanine tract of the affected gene. To better understand these disorders, our dependence on animal models persists, primarily relying on transgenic models. In an effort to complement and deepen our knowledge, researchers have also developed animal models of polyglutamine disorders employing viral vectors. Viral vectors have been extensively used to deliver genes to the brain, not only for therapeutic purposes but also for the development of animal models, given their remarkable flexibility. In a time- and cost-effective manner, it is possible to use different transgenes, at varying doses, in diverse targeted tissues, at different ages, and in different species, to recreate polyglutamine pathology. This paper aims to showcase the utility of viral vectors in disease modelling, share essential considerations for developing animal models with viral vectors, and provide a comprehensive review of existing viral-based animal models for polyglutamine disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carina Henriques
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), Gene and Stem Cell Therapies for the Brain Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Vectors, Gene and Cell Therapy Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- ViraVector-Viral Vector for Gene Transfer Core Facility, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Miguel M Lopes
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), Gene and Stem Cell Therapies for the Brain Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Vectors, Gene and Cell Therapy Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- ViraVector-Viral Vector for Gene Transfer Core Facility, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research (III), University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana C Silva
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), Gene and Stem Cell Therapies for the Brain Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Vectors, Gene and Cell Therapy Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- ViraVector-Viral Vector for Gene Transfer Core Facility, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research (III), University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Diana D Lobo
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), Gene and Stem Cell Therapies for the Brain Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Vectors, Gene and Cell Therapy Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- ViraVector-Viral Vector for Gene Transfer Core Facility, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research (III), University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Romina Aron Badin
- CEA, DRF, Institute of Biology François Jacob, Molecular Imaging Research Center (MIRCen), 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
- CNRS, CEA, Paris-Sud University, Université Paris-Saclay, Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory (UMR9199), 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Philippe Hantraye
- CEA, DRF, Institute of Biology François Jacob, Molecular Imaging Research Center (MIRCen), 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
- CNRS, CEA, Paris-Sud University, Université Paris-Saclay, Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory (UMR9199), 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Luís Pereira de Almeida
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), Gene and Stem Cell Therapies for the Brain Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Vectors, Gene and Cell Therapy Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- ViraVector-Viral Vector for Gene Transfer Core Facility, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Rui Jorge Nobre
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), Gene and Stem Cell Therapies for the Brain Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Vectors, Gene and Cell Therapy Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- ViraVector-Viral Vector for Gene Transfer Core Facility, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research (III), University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ding Y, Zhang Y, Liu X. Combinational treatments of RNA interference and extracellular vesicles in the spinocerebellar ataxia. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:1043947. [PMID: 36311034 PMCID: PMC9606576 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1043947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease (ND) with a high mortality rate. Symptomatic treatment is the only clinically adopted treatment. However, it has poor effect and serious complications. Traditional diagnostic methods [such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)] have drawbacks. Presently, the superiority of RNA interference (RNAi) and extracellular vesicles (EVs) in improving SCA has attracted extensive attention. Both can serve as the potential biomarkers for the diagnosing and monitoring disease progression. Herein, we analyzed the basis and prospect of therapies for SCA. Meanwhile, we elaborated the development and application of miRNAs, siRNAs, shRNAs, and EVs in the diagnosis and treatment of SCA. We propose the combination of RNAi and EVs to avoid the adverse factors of their respective treatment and maximize the benefits of treatment through the technology of EVs loaded with RNA. Obviously, the combinational therapy of RNAi and EVs may more accurately diagnose and cure SCA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Ding
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical College, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, Zhejiang, China
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical College, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xuehong Liu
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical College, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, Zhejiang, China
- *Correspondence: Xuehong Liu,
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Johnson SL, Tsou WL, Prifti MV, Harris AL, Todi SV. A survey of protein interactions and posttranslational modifications that influence the polyglutamine diseases. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:974167. [PMID: 36187346 PMCID: PMC9515312 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.974167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence and aggregation of misfolded proteins has deleterious effects in the nervous system. Among the various diseases caused by misfolded proteins is the family of the polyglutamine (polyQ) disorders. This family comprises nine members, all stemming from the same mutation—the abnormal elongation of a polyQ repeat in nine different proteins—which causes protein misfolding and aggregation, cellular dysfunction and disease. While it is the same type of mutation that causes them, each disease is distinct: it is influenced by regions and domains that surround the polyQ repeat; by proteins with which they interact; and by posttranslational modifications they receive. Here, we overview the role of non-polyQ regions that control the pathogenicity of the expanded polyQ repeat. We begin by introducing each polyQ disease, the genes affected, and the symptoms experienced by patients. Subsequently, we provide a survey of protein-protein interactions and posttranslational modifications that regulate polyQ toxicity. We conclude by discussing shared processes and pathways that bring some of the polyQ diseases together and may serve as common therapeutic entry points for this family of incurable disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sean L. Johnson
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Wei-Ling Tsou
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Matthew V. Prifti
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Autumn L. Harris
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
- Maximizing Access to Research Careers (MARC) Program, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Sokol V. Todi
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
- Maximizing Access to Research Careers (MARC) Program, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
- Department of Neurology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
- *Correspondence: Sokol V. Todi,
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Marchioretti C, Zuccaro E, Pandey UB, Rosati J, Basso M, Pennuto M. Skeletal Muscle Pathogenesis in Polyglutamine Diseases. Cells 2022; 11:2105. [PMID: 35805189 PMCID: PMC9265456 DOI: 10.3390/cells11132105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyglutamine diseases are characterized by selective dysfunction and degeneration of specific types of neurons in the central nervous system. In addition, nonneuronal cells can also be affected as a consequence of primary degeneration or due to neuronal dysfunction. Skeletal muscle is a primary site of toxicity of polyglutamine-expanded androgen receptor, but it is also affected in other polyglutamine diseases, more likely due to neuronal dysfunction and death. Nonetheless, pathological processes occurring in skeletal muscle atrophy impact the entire body metabolism, thus actively contributing to the inexorable progression towards the late and final stages of disease. Skeletal muscle atrophy is well recapitulated in animal models of polyglutamine disease. In this review, we discuss the impact and relevance of skeletal muscle in patients affected by polyglutamine diseases and we review evidence obtained in animal models and patient-derived cells modeling skeletal muscle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caterina Marchioretti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences (DBS), University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy; (C.M.); (E.Z.)
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine (VIMM), 35129 Padova, Italy
| | - Emanuela Zuccaro
- Department of Biomedical Sciences (DBS), University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy; (C.M.); (E.Z.)
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine (VIMM), 35129 Padova, Italy
| | - Udai Bhan Pandey
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15100, USA;
| | - Jessica Rosati
- Cellular Reprogramming Unit, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni Rotondo, 71100 Foggia, Italy;
| | - Manuela Basso
- Department of Cellular, Computational and Integrative Biology (CIBIO), University of Trento, 38100 Trento, Italy;
| | - Maria Pennuto
- Department of Biomedical Sciences (DBS), University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy; (C.M.); (E.Z.)
- Veneto Institute of Molecular Medicine (VIMM), 35129 Padova, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sujkowski A, Hong L, Wessells RJ, Todi SV. The protective role of exercise against age-related neurodegeneration. Ageing Res Rev 2022; 74:101543. [PMID: 34923167 PMCID: PMC8761166 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2021.101543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Endurance exercise is a widely accessible, low-cost intervention with a variety of benefits to multiple organ systems. Exercise improves multiple indices of physical performance and stimulates pronounced health benefits reducing a range of pathologies including metabolic, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative disorders. Endurance exercise delays brain aging, preserves memory and cognition, and improves symptoms of neurodegenerative pathologies like Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and various ataxias. Potential mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of exercise include neuronal survival and plasticity, neurogenesis, epigenetic modifications, angiogenesis, autophagy, and the synthesis and release of neurotrophins and cytokines. In this review, we discuss shared benefits and molecular pathways driving the protective effects of endurance exercise on various neurodegenerative diseases in animal models and in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alyson Sujkowski
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, USA
| | - Luke Hong
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, USA; Department of Neurology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, USA
| | - R J Wessells
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, USA
| | - Sokol V Todi
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, USA; Department of Neurology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Johnson SL, Libohova K, Blount JR, Sujkowski AL, Prifti MV, Tsou WL, Todi SV. Targeting the VCP-binding motif of ataxin-3 improves phenotypes in Drosophila models of Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 160:105516. [PMID: 34563642 PMCID: PMC8693084 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Of the family of polyglutamine (polyQ) neurodegenerative diseases, Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3 (SCA3) is the most common. Like other polyQ diseases, SCA3 stems from abnormal expansions in the CAG triplet repeat of its disease gene resulting in elongated polyQ repeats within its protein, ataxin-3. Various ataxin-3 protein domains contribute to its toxicity, including the valosin-containing protein (VCP)-binding motif (VBM). We previously reported that VCP, a homo-hexameric protein, enhances pathogenic ataxin-3 aggregation and exacerbates its toxicity. These findings led us to explore the impact of targeting the SCA3 protein by utilizing a decoy protein comprising the N-terminus of VCP (N-VCP) that binds ataxin-3's VBM. The notion was that N-VCP would reduce binding of ataxin-3 to VCP, decreasing its aggregation and toxicity. We found that expression of N-VCP in Drosophila melanogaster models of SCA3 ameliorated various phenotypes, coincident with reduced ataxin-3 aggregation. This protective effect was specific to pathogenic ataxin-3 and depended on its VBM. Increasing the amount of N-VCP resulted in further phenotype improvement. Our work highlights the protective potential of targeting the VCP-ataxin-3 interaction in SCA3, a key finding in the search for therapeutic opportunities for this incurable disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sean L Johnson
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Kozeta Libohova
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Jessica R Blount
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Alyson L Sujkowski
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA; Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Matthew V Prifti
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Wei-Ling Tsou
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Sokol V Todi
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA; Department of Neurology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Elsaey MA, Namikawa K, Köster RW. Genetic Modeling of the Neurodegenerative Disease Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 1 in Zebrafish. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:7351. [PMID: 34298970 PMCID: PMC8306488 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22147351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Dominant spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are progredient neurodegenerative diseases commonly affecting the survival of Purkinje cells (PCs) in the human cerebellum. Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1) is caused by the mutated ataxin1 (Atx1) gene product, in which a polyglutamine stretch encoded by CAG repeats is extended in affected SCA1 patients. As a monogenetic disease with the Atx1-polyQ protein exerting a gain of function, SCA1 can be genetically modelled in animals by cell type-specific overexpression. We have established a transgenic PC-specific SCA1 model in zebrafish coexpressing the fluorescent reporter protein mScarlet together with either human wild type Atx1[30Q] as control or SCA1 patient-derived Atx1[82Q]. SCA1 zebrafish display an age-dependent PC degeneration starting at larval stages around six weeks postfertilization, which continuously progresses during further juvenile and young adult stages. Interestingly, PC degeneration is observed more severely in rostral than in caudal regions of the PC population. Although such a neuropathology resulted in no gross locomotor control deficits, SCA1-fish with advanced PC loss display a reduced exploratory behaviour. In vivo imaging in this SCA1 model may help to better understand such patterned PC death known from PC neurodegeneration diseases, to elucidate disease mechanisms and to provide access to neuroprotective compound characterization in vivo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed A. Elsaey
- Division of Cellular & Molecular Neurobiology, Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstraße 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany;
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt
| | - Kazuhiko Namikawa
- Division of Cellular & Molecular Neurobiology, Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstraße 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany;
| | - Reinhard W. Köster
- Division of Cellular & Molecular Neurobiology, Zoological Institute, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstraße 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany;
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
El Massry M, Alaeddine LM, Ali L, Saad C, Eid AA. Metformin: A Growing Journey from Glycemic Control to the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease and Depression. Curr Med Chem 2021; 28:2328-2345. [PMID: 32900343 DOI: 10.2174/0929867327666200908114902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic stress, transduced as an altered cellular redox and energy status, presents as the main culprit in many diseases, including diabetes. However, its role in the pathology of neurological disorders is still not fully elucidated. Metformin, a biguanide compound, is an FDA approved antidiabetic drug generally used for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. The recently described wide spectrum of action executed by this drug suggests a potential therapeutic benefit in a panoply of disorders. Current studies imply that metformin could play a neuroprotective role by reversing hallmarks of brain injury (metabolic dysfunction, neuronal dystrophy and cellular loss), in addition to cognitive and behavioral alterations that accompany the onset of certain brain diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and depression. However, the mechanisms by which metformin exerts its protective effect in neurodegenerative disorders are not yet fully elucidated. The aim of this review is to reexamine the mechanisms through which metformin performs its function while concentrating on its effect on reestablishing homeostasis in a metabolically disturbed milieu. We will also highlight the importance of metabolic stress, not only as a component of many neurological disorders, but also as a primary driving force for neural insult. Of interest, we will explore the involvement of metabolic stress in the pathobiology of AD and depression. The derangement in major metabolic pathways, including AMPK, insulin and glucose transporters, will be explored and the potential therapeutic effects of metformin administration on the reversal of brain injury in such metabolism dependent diseases will be exposed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed El Massry
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology and Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Medical Center, American University of Beirut, Bliss Street, 11-0236, Riad El-Solh 1107-2020, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Lynn M Alaeddine
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology and Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Medical Center, American University of Beirut, Bliss Street, 11-0236, Riad El-Solh 1107-2020, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Leen Ali
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology and Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Medical Center, American University of Beirut, Bliss Street, 11-0236, Riad El-Solh 1107-2020, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Celine Saad
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology and Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Medical Center, American University of Beirut, Bliss Street, 11-0236, Riad El-Solh 1107-2020, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Assaad A Eid
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology and Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Medical Center, American University of Beirut, Bliss Street, 11-0236, Riad El-Solh 1107-2020, Beirut, Lebanon
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kung WM, Lin MS. The NFκB Antagonist CDGSH Iron-Sulfur Domain 2 Is a Promising Target for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:934. [PMID: 33477809 PMCID: PMC7832822 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22020934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 01/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Proinflammatory response and mitochondrial dysfunction are related to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). Nuclear factor κB (NFκB) activation has been shown to exaggerate proinflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction, which underlies NDs. CDGSH iron-sulfur domain 2 (CISD2) has been shown to be associated with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-β (PPAR-β) to compete for NFκB and antagonize the two aforementioned NFκB-provoked pathogeneses. Therefore, CISD2-based strategies hold promise in the treatment of NDs. CISD2 protein belongs to the human NEET protein family and is encoded by the CISD2 gene (located at 4q24 in humans). In CISD2, the [2Fe-2S] cluster, through coordinates of 3-cysteine-1-histidine on the CDGSH domain, acts as a homeostasis regulator under environmental stress through the transfer of electrons or iron-sulfur clusters. Here, we have summarized the features of CISD2 in genetics and clinics, briefly outlined the role of CISD2 as a key physiological regulator, and presented modalities to increase CISD2 activity, including biomedical engineering or pharmacological management. Strategies to increase CISD2 activity can be beneficial for the prevention of inflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction, and thus, they can be applied in the management of NDs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Woon-Man Kung
- Department of Exercise and Health Promotion, College of Kinesiology and Health, Chinese Culture University, Taipei 11114, Taiwan;
| | - Muh-Shi Lin
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Kuang Tien General Hospital, Taichung 43303, Taiwan
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, College of Bioresources, National Ilan University, Yilan 26047, Taiwan
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Medical and Health Care, Hung Kuang University, Taichung 43302, Taiwan
- Department of Health Business Administration, College of Medical and Health Care, Hung Kuang University, Taichung 43302, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Johnson SL, Ranxhi B, Libohova K, Tsou WL, Todi SV. Ubiquitin-interacting motifs of ataxin-3 regulate its polyglutamine toxicity through Hsc70-4-dependent aggregation. eLife 2020; 9:60742. [PMID: 32955441 PMCID: PMC7505662 DOI: 10.7554/elife.60742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3) belongs to the family of polyglutamine neurodegenerations. Each disorder stems from the abnormal lengthening of a glutamine repeat in a different protein. Although caused by a similar mutation, polyglutamine disorders are distinct, implicating non-polyglutamine regions of disease proteins as regulators of pathogenesis. SCA3 is caused by polyglutamine expansion in ataxin-3. To determine the role of ataxin-3’s non-polyglutamine domains in disease, we utilized a new, allelic series of Drosophila melanogaster. We found that ataxin-3 pathogenicity is saliently controlled by polyglutamine-adjacent ubiquitin-interacting motifs (UIMs) that enhance aggregation and toxicity. UIMs function by interacting with the heat shock protein, Hsc70-4, whose reduction diminishes ataxin-3 toxicity in a UIM-dependent manner. Hsc70-4 also enhances pathogenicity of other polyglutamine proteins. Our studies provide a unique insight into the impact of ataxin-3 domains in SCA3, identify Hsc70-4 as a SCA3 enhancer, and indicate pleiotropic effects from HSP70 chaperones, which are generally thought to suppress polyglutamine degeneration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sean L Johnson
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, United States
| | - Bedri Ranxhi
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, United States
| | - Kozeta Libohova
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, United States
| | - Wei-Ling Tsou
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, United States
| | - Sokol V Todi
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University, Detroit, United States.,Department of Neurology, Wayne State University, Detroit, United States
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Park JY, Joo K, Woo SJ. Ophthalmic Manifestations and Genetics of the Polyglutamine Autosomal Dominant Spinocerebellar Ataxias: A Review. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:892. [PMID: 32973440 PMCID: PMC7472957 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) is a part of the cerebellar neurodegenerative disease group that is diverse in genetics and phenotypes. It usually shows autosomal dominant inheritance. SCAs, always together with the cerebellar degeneration, may exhibit clinical deficits in brainstem or eye, especially retina or optic nerve. Interestingly, autosomal dominant SCAs share a common genetic mechanism; the length of the glutamine chain is abnormally expanded due to the increase in the cytosine–adenine–guanine (CAG) repeats of the disease causing gene. Studies have suggested that the mutant ataxin induces alteration of protein conformation and abnormal aggregation resulting in nuclear inclusions, and causes cellular loss of photoreceptors through a toxic effect. As a result, these pathologic changes induce a downregulation of genes involved in the phototransduction, development, and differentiation of photoreceptors such as CRX, one of the photoreceptor transcription factors. However, the exact mechanism of neuronal degeneration by mutant ataxin restricted to only certain type of neuronal cell including cerebellar Purkinje neurons and photoreceptor is still unclear. The most common SCAs are types 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 17 which contain about 80% of autosomal dominant SCA cases. Various aspects of eye movement abnormalities are evident depending on the degree of cerebellar and brainstem degeneration in SCAs. In addition, certain types of SCAs such as SCA7 are characterized by both cerebellar ataxia and visual loss mainly due to retinal degeneration. The severity of the retinopathy can vary from occult macular photoreceptor disruption to extensive retinal atrophy and is correlated with the number of CAG repeats. The value of using optical coherence tomography in conjunction with electrodiagnostic and genetic testing is emphasized as the combination of these tests can provide critical information regarding the etiology, morphological evaluation, and functional significances. Therefore, ophthalmologists need to recognize and differentiate SCAs in order to properly diagnose and evaluate the disease. In this review, we have described and discussed SCAs showing ophthalmic abnormalities with particular attention to their ophthalmic features, neurodegenerative mechanisms, genetics, and future perspectives.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jun Young Park
- Department of Ophthalmology, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Kwangsic Joo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Se Joon Woo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Abstract
Background: Movement disorders are often a prominent part of the phenotype of many neurologic rare diseases. In order to promote awareness and diagnosis of these rare diseases, the International Parkinson’s and Movement Disorders Society Rare Movement Disorders Study Group provides updates on rare movement disorders. Methods: In this narrative review, we discuss the differential diagnosis of the rare disorders that can cause chorea. Results: Although the most common causes of chorea are hereditary, it is critical to identify acquired or symptomatic choreas since these are potentially treatable conditions. Disorders of metabolism and mitochondrial cytopathies can also be associated with chorea. Discussion: The present review discusses clues to the diagnosis of chorea of various etiologies. Authors propose algorithms to help the clinician in the diagnosis of these rare disorders.
Collapse
|
14
|
Lee Y. Regulation and function of capicua in mammals. Exp Mol Med 2020; 52:531-537. [PMID: 32238859 PMCID: PMC7210929 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-020-0411-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Capicua (CIC) is an evolutionarily conserved transcription factor. CIC contains a high-mobility group (HMG) box that recognizes specific DNA sequences to regulate the expression of various target genes. CIC was originally identified in Drosophila melanogaster as a transcriptional repressor that suppresses the receptor tyrosine kinase signaling pathway. This molecule controls normal organ growth and tissue patterning as well as embryogenesis in Drosophila. Recent studies have also demonstrated its extensive functions in mammals. For example, CIC regulates several developmental and physiological processes, including lung development, abdominal wall closure during embryogenesis, brain development and function, neural stem cell homeostasis, T cell differentiation, and enterohepatic circulation of bile acids. CIC is also associated with the progression of various types of cancer and neurodegeneration in spinocerebellar ataxia type-1, systemic autoimmunity, and liver injury. In this review, I provide a broad overview of our current understanding of the regulation and functions of CIC in mammals and discuss future research directions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoontae Lee
- Department of Life Sciences, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea.
- Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
The neurological update: therapies for cerebellar ataxias in 2020. J Neurol 2020; 267:1211-1220. [DOI: 10.1007/s00415-020-09717-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 01/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
|
16
|
Cragnolini AB, Lampitella G, Virtuoso A, Viscovo I, Panetsos F, Papa M, Cirillo G. Regional brain susceptibility to neurodegeneration: what is the role of glial cells? Neural Regen Res 2020; 15:838-842. [PMID: 31719244 PMCID: PMC6990768 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.268897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The main pathological feature of the neurodegenerative diseases is represented by neuronal death that represents the final step of a cascade of adverse/hostile events. Early in the neurodegenerative process, glial cells (including astrocytes, microglial cells, and oligodendrocytes) activate and trigger an insidious neuroinflammatory reaction, metabolic decay, blood brain barrier dysfunction and energy impairment, boosting neuronal death. How these mechanisms might induce selective neuronal death in specific brain areas are far from being elucidated. The last two decades of neurobiological studies have provided evidence of the main role of glial cells in most of the processes of the central nervous system, from development to synaptogenesis, neuronal homeostasis and integration into, highly specific neuro-glial networks. In this mini-review, we moved from in vitro and in vivo models of neurodegeneration to analyze the putative role of glial cells in the early mechanisms of neurodegeneration. We report changes of transcriptional, genetic, morphological, and metabolic activity in astrocytes and microglial cells in specific brain areas before neuronal degeneration, providing evidence in experimental models of neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Understanding these mechanisms might increase the insight of these processes and pave the way for new specific glia-targeted therapeutic strategies for neurodegenerative disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Beatriz Cragnolini
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba; Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Tecnológicas (IIByT), CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Giorgia Lampitella
- Human Anatomy and Laboratory of Morphology of Neuronal Networks, Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
| | - Assunta Virtuoso
- Human Anatomy and Laboratory of Morphology of Neuronal Networks, Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
| | - Immacolata Viscovo
- Human Anatomy and Laboratory of Morphology of Neuronal Networks, Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
| | - Fivos Panetsos
- Neuro-computing & Neuro-robotics Research Group, Universidad Complutense de Madrid; Neural Plasticity Research Group, Instituto Investigación Sanitaria Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Michele Papa
- Human Anatomy and Laboratory of Morphology of Neuronal Networks, Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
| | - Giovanni Cirillo
- Human Anatomy and Laboratory of Morphology of Neuronal Networks, Department of Mental and Physical Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Hu J, Corey DR. Limits of using oligonucleotides for allele-selective inhibition at trinucleotide repeat sequences - targeting the CAG repeat within ataxin-1. NUCLEOSIDES NUCLEOTIDES & NUCLEIC ACIDS 2019; 39:185-194. [PMID: 31645175 DOI: 10.1080/15257770.2019.1671592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Trinucleotide repeats are responsible for many genetic diseases. Previous studies have shown that duplex RNAs (dsRNAs) can be used to target expression of a mutant repeat allele while leaving expression of the wild-type allele untouched, creating opportunities for allele-selective inhibition and better therapeutic outcomes. In contrast to successes with other genes, we report here that we cannot achieve allele-selective inhibition when targeting the expanded CAG repeat within Ataxin-1 (ATXN1), the cause of spinal cerebellar ataxia-1 (SCA1). The most likely explanation for this unfavorable outcome is that the mean CAG repeat number within wild-type ATXN1 is relatively high compared to other trinucleotide repeat diseases. Because the wild-type repeat number is high, it is likely that there is poor discrimination between the mutant and wild-type repeat and less opportunity for allele-selective inhibition across the entire spectrum of mutations found in SCA1 patients. Our data support the conclusion that the potential for multiple cooperative binding interactions is a critical factor governing allele-selective recognition of trinucleotide repeat genes by duplex RNAs. These results should be helpful in predicting which diseases and which patients are most likely to benefit from allele-selective targeting of expanded repeats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxin Hu
- Departments of Pharmacology and Biochemistry, UT Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - David R Corey
- Departments of Pharmacology and Biochemistry, UT Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Verma AK, Khan E, Bhagwat SR, Kumar A. Exploring the Potential of Small Molecule-Based Therapeutic Approaches for Targeting Trinucleotide Repeat Disorders. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 57:566-584. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-01724-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
|
19
|
Chuang CS, Chang JC, Soong BW, Chuang SF, Lin TT, Cheng WL, Orr HT, Liu CS. Treadmill training increases the motor activity and neuron survival of the cerebellum in a mouse model of spinocerebellar ataxia type 1. Kaohsiung J Med Sci 2019; 35:679-685. [PMID: 31271500 DOI: 10.1002/kjm2.12106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) type 1 (SCA1) is a rare autosomal dominant disorder that is characterized by worsening of disordered coordination, ataxia of the trunk, and other neurological symptoms. Physical activity improves both mobility and the daily living activities of patients with SCA. Intervention with daily regular treadmill exercise may slow the deterioration of cerebellar neurons in SCA1. Therefore, the signal changes and performance of cerebellar neurons after exercise in SCA1 was investigated in this study. We employed a transgenic mouse model of SCA1, generated by amplifying the cytosine-adenine-guanine trinucleotide repeat expansions, and the mice underwent 1 month of moderate daily treadmill exercise for 1 hour. The rotarod test revealed that the motor function of the SCA1 mice that underwent training was superior to that of the control SCA1 mice, which did not undergo training. Moreover, the cerebellar pathology revealed preserved Purkinje neurons stained by carbindin with an increase of the neuronal Per Arnt Sim domain protein 4, a key regulation in the structural and functional plasticity of neurons, in the excised SCA1 mice relative to the controls. The mechanism was related to an increase of phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6, a downstream target of the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway, but not to autophagy activation. This study determined that regular treadmill exercise may play a crucial role in the viable support of cerebellar neurons in SCA1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chieh-Sen Chuang
- Department of Neurology, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan.,Vascular and Genomic Center, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Jui-Chih Chang
- Vascular and Genomic Center, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Bing-Wen Soong
- Department of Neurology, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Institute of Neuroscience, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Fei Chuang
- Vascular and Genomic Center, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Ta-Tsung Lin
- Vascular and Genomic Center, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Ling Cheng
- Vascular and Genomic Center, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Harry T Orr
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Minnesota Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Chin-San Liu
- Department of Neurology, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan.,Vascular and Genomic Center, Changhua Christian Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan.,School of Chinese Medicine, Graduate Institute of Integrated Medicine, Research Center for Chinese Medicine and Acupuncture, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Zhang S, Williamson NA, Bogoyevitch MA. Complementary proteomics strategies capture an ataxin-1 interactome in Neuro-2a cells. Sci Data 2018; 5:180262. [PMID: 30457570 PMCID: PMC6244183 DOI: 10.1038/sdata.2018.262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Ataxin-1 mutation, arising from a polyglutamine (polyQ) tract expansion, is the underlying genetic cause of the late-onset neurodegenerative disease Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1). To identify protein partners of polyQ-ataxin-1 in neuronal cells under control or stress conditions, here we report our complementary proteomics strategies of proximity-dependent biotin identification (BioID) and affinity purification (via GFP-Trap pulldown) in Neuro-2a cells expressing epitope-tagged forms of ataxin-1[85Q]. These approaches allowed our enrichment of proximal proteins and interacting partners, respectively, with the subsequent protein identification performed by liquid chromatography-MS/MS. Background proteins, not dependent on the presence of the polyQ-ataxin-1 protein, were additionally defined by their endogenous biotinylation (for the BioID protocol) or by their non-specific interaction with GFP only (in the GFP-Trap protocol). All datasets were generated from biological replicates. Following the removal of the identified background proteins from the acquired protein lists, our experimental design has captured a comprehensive polyQ-ataxin-1 proximal and direct protein partners under normal and stress conditions. Data are available via ProteomeXchange, with identifier PXD010352.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sunyuan Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Nicholas A. Williamson
- Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Marie A. Bogoyevitch
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| |
Collapse
|