Neuronal Bases of Systemic Organization of Behavior

Anticipatory attractors, functional neurochemistry and "Throw & Catch" mechanisms as illustrations of constructivism

This review explores several rarely discussed examples illustrating constructivism principles, generative and selective features of neuronal regulation of behaviour. First, the review highlights Walter Freeman's experiments and mathematical analysis that uncovered the existence of anticipatory attractors, i.e. non-random dynamical patterns in neurodynamics. Since Freeman's work did not extend to neurochemistry, this paper then points to the proposed earlier neurochemical framework summarizing the managerial roles of monoaminergic, cholinergic and opioid receptor systems likely contributing to anticipatory attractors in line with functional constructivism. As a third example, neurochemistry's evidence points to the "Throw & Catch" (T&C) principle in neurodynamics. This principle refers to the pro-active, neurochemically expensive, massive but topical increase of potentials ("Throw") within electrodynamics and neurotransmission in the brain whenever there is an uncertainty in selection of degrees of freedom (DFs). The T&C also underlines the relay-like processes during the selection of DFs. The "Throw" works as an internally generated "flashlight" that, contrarily to the expectations of entropy reduction, increases entropy and variance observed in processes related to orientation and action-formation. The discussed examples highlight the deficiency of structures-oriented projects and excitation-inhibition concepts in neuroscience. The neural regulation of behaviour appears to be a fluid, constructive process, constantly upgrading the choice of behavioural DFs, to ensure the compatibility between the environmental and individual's individuals' needs and capacities.

Analytic Background in the Neuroscience of the Potential Project "Hippocrates"

This paper reviews the principles identified in analytic neuroscience that could be used in the setup of an international project, "Hippocrates" (H-project), named after the author of the endocrine theory of temperaments. The H-project can aim to summarize the findings in functional neurochemistry of consistent behavioural patterns (CBPs) in health (such as temperament traits) and psychopathology (symptoms of psychiatric disorders); to have systematically structured neurochemical investigations; to have an analysis of CBPs that include all ranges of behavioural histories and to have these modules complemented by regional contrasts related to climate, diets and other bio-environmental factors. The review highlights the benefits of constructivism and illustrates the contrast between constructivism and current approaches in terms of analytic and methodological aspects. (1) "Where" the neurochemical biomarkers should be measured: the review expands the range of needed measurements to out-of-brain systems, including environmental factors, and explores the concept of Specialized Extended Phenotype. (2) "What" should be measured but is missing: the review points to the need for measurement of the "Throw & Catch" neurochemical relays; behavioural and neuronal events contributing to the consistency of the CBPs but not documented in measurements. (3) Structuring the H-project's setup: the paper briefly describes a proposed earlier neurochemical framework, Functional Ensemble of Temperament that that accommodates the neurochemical continuum between temperament and symptoms of psychiatric disorders. This framework is in line with documented "Throw & Catch" neurochemical relays and can also be used to organize data about the personal and professional history of an individual.

Regression I. Experimental approaches to regression

The concept of regression is considered with an emphasis on the differences between the positions of Freud and Jung regarding its significance. The paper discusses the results of experimental analyses of individual experience dynamics (from gene expression changes and impulse neuronal activity in animals to prosocial behaviour in healthy humans at different ages, and humans in chronic pain) in those situations where regression occurs: stress, disease, learning, highly emotional states and alcohol intoxication. Common mechanisms of regression in all these situations are proposed. The mechanisms of regression can be described as reversible dedifferentiation, which is understood as a relative increase of the representation of low-differentiated (older) systems in the actualized experience. In all of the cases of dedifferentiation mentioned above, the complexity of the systemic organization of behaviour significantly decreases.

Cell functioning in norm and pathology in terms of the activity paradigm: Oncogenesis

Over the past years many theories of carcinogenesis have been developed. Nowadays, there are two prevalent theories of carcinogenesis - two-hit hypothesis, which considers mutations as the main factor in malignization and tissue hypothesis, which considers tissue homeostasis disruption for providing cells transformation. Both of these theories explain cancer origin basing on principles of the reactivity paradigm. This paradigm emphasizes role of different stimuli in malignization. However, this approach does not provide us with sufficient support in progress towards either understanding of cancer origin or effective treatment strategies. In contrast to the reactivity paradigm, we intend to explain oncogenesis within the activity paradigm. Upon this approach, cells' activity is goal-directed and is determined by a future event - the adaptive result. The adaptive result is a proper interaction between the cell and its environment, which provides the cell with required metabolites. To achieve this result cells have to cooperate with each other and synchronize their needs. If cells fail to satisfy their metabolic 'needs' they have to reorganize their activity. This results in morpho-functional restructuring of cells. Summing up, we consider carcinogenesis to be a part of goal-directed adaptive activity of cells. Morphological and genetic atypia of cancer cells is a variant reorganization of cells' activity. Consequently, for better treatment, we should bring both transforming cells and their microenvironment to a novel cooperation and reorganization of their activity.

Greater learning transfer effect for avoidance of loss than for achievement of gain in Finnish and Russian schoolchildren

Classification of behavior into principal categories of approach and avoidance is grounded in evolutionary considerations and multiple results of behavioral, self-report, and brain-activity analyses. Contrasted via measures of cognitive processes, avoidance is accompanied by greater cognitive engagement than approach. Considering outcome as a key constituent of behavioral underpinnings, we interpret approach/avoidance distinction in terms of structure of experience: avoidance domain provides more detailed interaction with the environment, than approach domain. Learning outwardly similar behaviors aimed at gain or loss outcomes manifests formation of different structures that underlie further learning. Therefore, we predicted difference of learning transfer between gain and loss contexts that was revealed here by introducing two tasks for different groups of schoolchildren in Finland and Russia. The cultural specificity of gain/loss differences was also evident with employed measures, including error rate and post-error slowing. The results support that avoidance-motivated behavior is organized as a more complex organism-environment interaction, than the approach-motivated behavior.