Splice site requirements and switches in plants

Rare occurrence of cryptic 5' splice sites by downstream 3' splice site/exon boundary mutations in a heavy-ion-induced egy1-4 allele of Arabidopsis thaliana

Pre-mRNA splicing is a fundamental process in eukaryotic gene expression, and the mechanism of intron definition, involving the recognition of the canonical GU (5'-splice site) and AG (3'-splice site) dinucleotides by splicing factors, has been postulated for most cases of splicing initiation in plants. Splice site mutations have played crucial roles in unraveling the mechanism of pre-mRNA splicing in planta. Typically, splice site mutations abolish splicing events or activate one or more cryptic splice sites surrounding the mutated region. In this report, we investigated the splicing pattern of the EGY1 gene in an Ar-ion-induced egy1-4 allele of Arabidopsis thaliana. egy1-4 has an AG-to-AC mutation in the 3'-end of intron 3, along with 4-bp substitutions and a 5-bp deletion in adjacent exon 4. RT-PCR, cDNA cloning, and amplicon sequencing analyses of EGY1 revealed that while most wild-type EGY1 mRNAs had a single splicing pattern, egy1-4 mRNAs had multiple splicing defects. Almost half of EGY1 transcripts showed 'intron retention' at intron 3, while the other half exhibited activation of 3' cryptic splice sites either upstream or downstream of the original 3'-splice site. Unexpectedly, around 8% of EGY1 transcripts in egy1-4 exhibited activation of cryptic 5'-splice sites positioned upstream of the authentic 5'-splice site of intron 3. Whole genome resequencing of egy1-4 indicated that it has no other known impactful mutations. These results may provide a rare, but real case of activation of cryptic 5'-splice sites by downstream 3'-splice site/exon mutations in planta.

Genome-wide association studies meta-analysis uncovers NOJO and SGS3 novel genes involved in Arabidopsis thaliana primary root development and plasticity

BACKGROUND

Arabidopsis thaliana primary root growth has become a model for evo-devo studies due to its simplicity and facility to record cell proliferation and differentiation. To identify new genetic components relevant to primary root growth, we used a Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) meta-analysis approach using data published in the last decade. In this work, we performed intra and inter-studies analyses to discover new genetic components that could participate in primary root growth.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We used 639 accessions from nine different studies under control conditions and performed different GWAS tests. We found that primary root growth changes were associated with 41 genes, of which six (14.6%) have been previously described as inhibitors or promoters of primary root growth. The knockdown lines of two genes, Suppressor of Gene Silencing (SGS3), involved in tasiRNA processing, and a gene with a Sterile Alpha Motif (SAM) motif named NOJOCH MOOTS (NOJO), confirmed their role as repressors of primary root growth, none has been shown to participate in this developmental process before.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, our GWAS analysis of different available studies identified new genes that participate in primary root growth; two of them were identified as repressors of primary root growth.

OsFKBP20-1b interacts with the splicing factor OsSR45 and participates in the environmental stress response at the post-transcriptional level in rice

Sessile plants have evolved distinct mechanisms to respond and adapt to adverse environmental conditions through diverse mechanisms including RNA processing. While the role of RNA processing in the stress response is well understood for Arabidopsis thaliana, limited information is available for rice (Oryza sativa). Here, we show that OsFKBP20-1b, belonging to the immunophilin family, interacts with the splicing factor OsSR45 in both nuclear speckles and cytoplasmic foci, and plays an essential role in post-transcriptional regulation of abiotic stress response. The expression of OsFKBP20-1b was highly upregulated under various abiotic stresses. Moreover genetic analysis revealed that OsFKBP20-1b positively affected transcription and pre-mRNA splicing of stress-responsive genes under abiotic stress conditions. In osfkbp20-1b loss-of-function mutants, the expression of stress-responsive genes was downregulated, while that of their splicing variants was increased. Conversely, in plants overexpressing OsFKBP20-1b, the expression of the same stress-responsive genes was strikingly upregulated under abiotic stress. In vivo experiments demonstrated that OsFKBP20-1b directly maintains protein stability of OsSR45 splicing factor. Furthermore, we found that the plant-specific OsFKBP20-1b gene has uniquely evolved as a paralogue only in some Poaceae species. Together, our findings suggest that OsFKBP20-1b-mediated RNA processing contributes to stress adaptation in rice.

Functional intron-derived miRNAs and host-gene expression in plants

BACKGROUND

Recently, putative pre-miRNAs locations have been identified in the introns of plant genes, raising the question whether such genes can show a dual functionality by having both correct maturation of the host gene pre-mRNA and maturation of the miRNAs from the intron. Here, we demonstrated that such dual functionality is indeed possible, using as host gene the firefly luciferase gene with intron (ffgLUC), and different artificial intronic miRNAs (aimiRNA) placed within the intron of ffgLUC.

RESULTS

The miRNAs were based on the structure of the natural miR319a. Luciferase (LUC) activity in planta was used to evaluate a correct splicing of the ffgLUC mRNA. Different target sequences were inserted into the aimiRNA to monitor efficiency of silencing of different target mRNAs. After adjusting the insertion cloning strategy, the ffgLUCaimiR-319a gene showed dual functionality with correct splicing of ffgLUC and efficient silencing of TEOSINTE BRANCHED1/CYCLOIDEA/PROLIFERATING CELL FACTOR1 transcription factor genes targeted in-trans by aimiR-319a or targeting the transgene ffLUC in-cis by an aimiR-LUC. Silencing of endogenous target genes by aimiRNA or amiRNA is efficient both in transient assays and stable transformants. A behave as strong phenotype the PHYTOCHROME B (PHYB) gene was also targeted by ffgLUCaimiR-PHYB. The lack of silencing of the PHYB target was most likely due to an insensitive target site within the PHYB mRNA which can potentially form a double stranded stem structure.

CONCLUSION

The combination of an overexpression construct with an artificial intronic microRNA allows for a simultaneous dual function in plants. The concept therefore adds new options to engineering of plant traits that require multiple gene manipulations.

Exploring the relationship between intron retention and chromatin accessibility in plants

Background

Intron retention (IR) is the most prevalent form of alternative splicing in plants. IR, like other forms of alternative splicing, has an important role in increasing gene product diversity and regulating transcript functionality. Splicing is known to occur co-transcriptionally and is influenced by the speed of transcription which in turn, is affected by chromatin structure. It follows that chromatin structure may have an important role in the regulation of splicing, and there is preliminary evidence in metazoans to suggest that this is indeed the case; however, nothing is known about the role of chromatin structure in regulating IR in plants. DNase I-seq is a useful experimental tool for genome-wide interrogation of chromatin accessibility, providing information on regions of chromatin with very high likelihood of cleavage by the enzyme DNase I, known as DNase I Hypersensitive Sites (DHSs). While it is well-established that promoter regions are highly accessible and are over-represented with DHSs, not much is known about DHSs in the bodies of genes, and their relationship to splicing in general, and IR in particular.

Results

In this study we use publicly available DNase I-seq data in arabidopsis and rice to investigate the relationship between IR and chromatin structure. We find that IR events are highly enriched in DHSs in both species. This implies that chromatin is more open in retained introns, which is consistent with a kinetic model of the process whereby higher speeds of transcription in those regions give less time for the spliceosomal machinery to recognize and splice out those introns co-transcriptionally. The more open chromatin in IR can also be the result of regulation mediated by DNA-binding proteins. To test this, we performed an exhaustive search for footprints left by DNA-binding proteins that are associated with IR. We identified several hundred short sequence elements that exhibit footprints in their DNase I-seq coverage, the telltale sign for binding events of a regulatory protein, protecting its binding site from cleavage by DNase I. A highly significant fraction of those sequence elements are conserved between arabidopsis and rice, a strong indication of their functional importance.

Conclusions

In this study we have established an association between IR and chromatin accessibility, and presented a mechanistic hypothesis that explains the observed association from the perspective of the co-transcriptional nature of splicing. Furthermore, we identified conserved sequence elements for DNA-binding proteins that affect splicing.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-017-4393-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

An intragenic mutagenesis strategy in Physcomitrella patens to preserve intron splicing

Gene targeting is a powerful reverse genetics technique for site-specific genome modification. Intrinsic homologous recombination in the moss Physcomitrella patens permits highly effective gene targeting, a characteristic that makes this organism a valuable model for functional genetics. Functional characterization of domains located within a multi-domain protein depends on the ability to generate mutants harboring genetic modifications at internal gene positions while maintaining the reading-frames of the flanking exons. In this study, we designed and evaluated different gene targeting constructs for targeted gene manipulation of sequences corresponding to internal domains of the DEFECTIVE KERNEL1 protein in Physcomitrella patens. Our results show that gene targeting-associated mutagenesis of introns can have adverse effects on splicing, corrupting the normal reading frame of the transcript. We show that successful genetic modification of internal sequences of multi-exon genes depends on gene-targeting strategies which insert the selection marker cassette into the 5' end of the intron and preserve the nucleotide sequence of the targeted intron.

The origin of exon 3 skipping of paternal GLOBOSA pre-mRNA in some Nicotiana tabacum lines correlates with a point mutation of the very last nucleotide of the exon

In plants, genome duplication followed by genome diversification and selection is recognized as a major evolutionary process. Rapid epigenetic and genetic changes that affect the transcription of parental genes are frequently observed after polyploidization. The pattern of alternative splicing is also frequently altered, yet the related molecular processes remain largely unresolved. Here, we study the inheritance and expression of parental variants of three floral organ identity genes in allotetraploid tobacco. DEFICIENS and GLOBOSA are B-class genes, and AGAMOUS is a C-class gene. Parental variants of these genes were found to be maintained in the tobacco genome, and the respective mRNAs were present in flower buds in comparable amounts. However, among five tobacco cultivars, we identified two in which the majority of paternal GLOBOSA pre-mRNA transcripts undergo exon 3 skipping, producing an mRNA with a premature termination codon. At the DNA level, we identified a G-A transition at the very last position of exon 3 in both cultivars. Although alternative splicing resulted in a dramatic decrease in full-length paternal GLOBOSA mRNA, no phenotypic effect was observed. Our finding likely serves as an example of the initiation of homoeolog diversification in a relatively young polyploid genome.

Differential pre-mRNA Splicing Alters the Transcript Diversity of Helitrons Between the Maize Inbred Lines

The propensity to capture and mobilize gene fragments by the highly abundant Helitron family of transposable elements likely impacts the evolution of genes in Zea mays. These elements provide a substrate for natural selection by giving birth to chimeric transcripts by intertwining exons of disparate genes. They also capture flanking exons by read-through transcription. Here, we describe the expression of selected Helitrons in different maize inbred lines. We recently reported that these Helitrons produce multiple isoforms of transcripts in inbred B73 via alternative splicing. Despite sharing high degrees of sequence similarity, the splicing profile of Helitrons differed among various maize inbred lines. The comparison of Helitron sequences identified unique polymorphisms in inbred B73, which potentially give rise to the alternatively spliced sites utilized by transcript isoforms. Some alterations in splicing, however, do not have obvious explanations. These observations not only add another level to the creation of transcript diversity by Helitrons among inbred lines but also provide novel insights into the cis-acting elements governing splice-site selection during pre-mRNA processing.

The extent of Ds1 transposon to enrich transcriptomes and proteomes by exonization

BACKGROUND

Exonization is an event which an intronic transposed element (TE) provides splice sites and leads to alternatively spliced cassette exons. Without disrupting of the inserted gene's function, TEs can expand the proteome diversity by adding the splice variant that encodes a different, yet functional protein. Previously, we found that the main contribution of Ds exonization for gene divergence is not providing genetic messages but incorporating the intron sequences with different reading frame patterns to enrich the plant proteome. Ds1, another member of Ac/Ds transposon system, differs from Ds by providing 3 splice donor sites and 2 acceptor sites for alternative splicing, which may greatly increase the extent for proteome expansion.

RESULTS

In this study, we performed a genome-wide survey of Ds1 exonization events to assess its extent to enrich proteomes in plants. Each Ds1 insertion yielded 11 transcript isoforms by integrating the splice donor and/or acceptor sites, which composed a bulk of all exonized transcript orthologs from the dicot Arabidopsis thaliana and the monocot Oryza sativa (rice). The exonized transcripts were analyzed by the locations of the termination codon (PTC) and the putative targets for the nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) pathway were then excluded. Compared with the Ds element, Ds1 harbors more contents of non-NMD transcripts for protein isoforms.

CONCLUSIONS

The contribution of Ds1 exonization for gene divergence is incorporating the intron sequences with different reading frame patterns to enrich the plant proteome. All these simulation results direct new experimental analysis at the molecular level.

Genome-wide survey of ds exonization to enrich transcriptomes and proteomes in plants

Insertion of transposable elements (TEs) into introns can lead to their activation as alternatively spliced cassette exons, an event called exonization which can enrich the complexity of transcriptomes and proteomes. Previously, we performed the first experimental assessment of TE exonization by inserting a Ds element into each intron of the rice epsps gene. Exonization of Ds in plants was biased toward providing splice donor sites from the beginning of the inserted Ds sequence. Additionally, Ds inserted in the reverse direction resulted in a continuous splice donor consensus region by offering 4 donor sites in the same intron. The current study involved genome-wide computational analysis of Ds exonization events in the dicot Arabidopsis thaliana and the monocot Oryza sativa (rice). Up to 71% of the exonized transcripts were putative targets for the nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) pathway. The insertion patterns of Ds and the polymorphic splice donor sites increased the transcripts and subsequent protein isoforms. Protein isoforms contain protein sequence due to unspliced intron-TE region and/or a shift of the reading frame. The number of interior protein isoforms would be twice that of C-terminal isoforms, on average. TE exonization provides a promising way for functional expansion of the plant proteome.

Interactions of SR45, an SR-like protein, with spliceosomal proteins and an intronic sequence: insights into regulated splicing

SR45 is a serine/arginine-rich (SR)-like protein with two arginine/serine-rich (RS) domains. We have previously shown that SR45 regulates alternative splicing (AS) by differential selection of 5' and 3' splice sites. However, it is unknown how SR45 regulates AS. To gain mechanistic insights into the roles of SR45 in splicing, we screened a yeast two-hybrid library with SR45. This screening resulted in the isolation of two spliceosomal proteins, U1-70K and U2AF(35) b that are known to function in 5' and 3' splice site selection, respectively. This screen not only confirmed our prior observation that U1-70K and SR45 interact, but also helped to identify an additional interacting partner (U2AF(35) ). In vitro and in vivo analyses revealed an interaction of SR45 with both paralogs of U2AF(35) . Furthermore, we show that the RS1 and RS2 domains of SR45, and not the RNA recognition motif (RRM) domain, associate independently with both U2AF(35) proteins. Interaction studies among U2AF(35) paralogs and between U2AF(35) and U1-70K revealed that U2AF(35) can form homo- or heterodimers and that U2AF(35) proteins can associate with U1-70K. Using RNA probes from SR30 intron 10, whose splicing is altered in the sr45 mutant, we show that SR45 and U2AF(35) b bind to different parts of the intron, with a binding site for SR45 in the 5' region and two binding regions, each ending with a known 3' splice site, for U2AF(35) b. These results suggest that SR45 recruits U1snRNP and U2AF to 5' and 3' splice sites, respectively, by interacting with pre-mRNA, U1-70K and U2AF(35) and modulates AS.

The perichromatin region of the plant cell nucleus is the area with the strongest co-localisation of snRNA and SR proteins

The spatial organisation of the splicing system in plant cells containing either reticular (Allium cepa) or chromocentric (Lupinus luteus) nuclei was studied by immunolabelling of SR proteins, snRNA, and the PANA antigen, known markers for interchromatin granule clusters in mammalian cells. Electron microscope results allowed us to determine the distribution of these molecules within the structural domains of the nucleus. Similar to animal cells, in both plant species SR proteins were localised in interchromatin granules, but contrary to animal cells contained very small amounts of snRNA. The area with the strongest snRNA and SR protein co-localisation was the perichromatin region, which may be the location of pre-mRNA splicing in the plant cell nuclei. The only observable differences in the organisation of reticular and chromocentric nuclei were the size of the speckles and the number of snRNA pools in the condensed chromatin. We conclude that, despite remarkable changes in the nuclear architecture, the organisation of the splicing system is remarkably similar in both types of plant cell nuclei.

Ds transposon is biased towards providing splice donor sites for exonization in transgenic tobacco

Insertion of transposed elements into introns can lead to their activation as alternatively spliced cassette exons, an event called exonization, which can enrich the complexity of transcriptomes and proteomes. In this study, the first exonization event was detected when the modified rice EPSPS marker gene was inserted with the Ac transposon 5' end, which provided a splice donor site to yield abundant novel transcripts. To assess the contribution of splice donor and acceptor sites of transposon sequences, we inserted a Ds element into each intron of the EPSPS marker gene. This process yielded 14 constructs, with the Ds transposon inserted in the forward and reverse direction in each of the 7 introns of the EPSPS marker gene. The constructs were transformed into tobacco plants, and novel transcripts were identified by RT-PCR with specific primers. Exonization of Ds in EPSPS was biased towards providing splice donor sites of the inserted Ds sequence. Additionally, when the Ds inserted in reverse direction, a continuous splice donor consensus region was determined by offering 4 donor sites in the same intron. Information on these exonization events may help enhance gene divergence and functional genomic studies.

Transgene regulation in plants by alternative splicing of a suicide exon

Compared to transcriptional activation, other mechanisms of gene regulation have not been widely exploited for the control of transgenes. One barrier to the general use and application of alternative splicing is that splicing-regulated transgenes have not been shown to be reliably and simply designed. Here, we demonstrate that a cassette bearing a suicide exon can be inserted into a variety of open reading frames (ORFs), generating transgenes whose expression is activated by exon skipping in response to a specific protein inducer. The surprisingly minimal sequence requirements for the maintenance of splicing fidelity and regulation indicate that this splicing cassette can be used to regulate any ORF containing one of the amino acids Glu, Gln or Lys. Furthermore, a single copy of the splicing cassette was optimized by rational design to confer robust gene activation with no background expression in plants. Thus, conditional splicing has the potential to be generally useful for transgene regulation.

Ecotype dependent expression and alternative splicing of epithiospecifier protein (ESP) in Arabidopsis thaliana

Epithiospecifier protein (ESP) is responsible for diverting glucosinolate hydrolysis from the generation of isothiocyanates to that of epithionitriles or nitriles, and thereby negatively affects the ability of the plant to defend itself against certain insects. Despite this important role of ESP, little is known about its expression in plant tissues and the regulation thereof. We therefore investigated ESP expression by qPCR and Western blot in different organs during the growth cycle of the two Arabidopsis thaliana ecotypes Col-0 and Mt-0. Besides the fact that ESP transcript and protein levels were revealed to be much higher in Mt-0 than in Col-0 in all cases, our qPCR results also indicated that ESP expression is regulated differently in the two A. thaliana ecotypes. No ESP protein was detected by Western blot in any organ or developmental stage for Col-0. During the assays an alternative splice variant of ESP was identified in Col-0, but not Mt-0, leading to a mis-spliced transcript which could explain the low expression levels of ESP in the former ecotype. Analysis of genomic sequences containing the ESP splice sites, of ESP protein level and ESP activity from seven A. thaliana ecotypes showed a positive correlation between the presence of a non-canonical 5' splice site for ESP and the absence of detectable ESP protein levels and ESP activity. When analysing the expression of both transcript variants in Col-0 after treatment with methyl jasmonate, a condition known to "induce ESP", it was indeed the alternative splice variant that was preferentially induced.

Deciphering the plant splicing code: experimental and computational approaches for predicting alternative splicing and splicing regulatory elements

Extensive alternative splicing (AS) of precursor mRNAs (pre-mRNAs) in multicellular eukaryotes increases the protein-coding capacity of a genome and allows novel ways to regulate gene expression. In flowering plants, up to 48% of intron-containing genes exhibit AS. However, the full extent of AS in plants is not yet known, as only a few high-throughput RNA-Seq studies have been performed. As the cost of obtaining RNA-Seq reads continues to fall, it is anticipated that huge amounts of plant sequence data will accumulate and help in obtaining a more complete picture of AS in plants. Although it is not an onerous task to obtain hundreds of millions of reads using high-throughput sequencing technologies, computational tools to accurately predict and visualize AS are still being developed and refined. This review will discuss the tools to predict and visualize transcriptome-wide AS in plants using short-reads and highlight their limitations. Comparative studies of AS events between plants and animals have revealed that there are major differences in the most prevalent types of AS events, suggesting that plants and animals differ in the way they recognize exons and introns. Extensive studies have been performed in animals to identify cis-elements involved in regulating AS, especially in exon skipping. However, few such studies have been carried out in plants. Here, we review the current state of research on splicing regulatory elements (SREs) and briefly discuss emerging experimental and computational tools to identify cis-elements involved in regulation of AS in plants. The availability of curated alternative splice forms in plants makes it possible to use computational tools to predict SREs involved in AS regulation, which can then be verified experimentally. Such studies will permit identification of plant-specific features involved in AS regulation and contribute to deciphering the splicing code in plants.

Genome-wide landscape of polyadenylation in Arabidopsis provides evidence for extensive alternative polyadenylation

Alternative polyadenylation (APA) has been shown to play an important role in gene expression regulation in animals and plants. However, the extent of sense and antisense APA at the genome level is not known. We developed a deep-sequencing protocol that queries the junctions of 3'UTR and poly(A) tails and confidently maps the poly(A) tags to the annotated genome. The results of this mapping show that 70% of Arabidopsis genes use more than one poly(A) site, excluding microheterogeneity. Analysis of the poly(A) tags reveal extensive APA in introns and coding sequences, results of which can significantly alter transcript sequences and their encoding proteins. Although the interplay of intron splicing and polyadenylation potentially defines poly(A) site uses in introns, the polyadenylation signals leading to the use of CDS protein-coding region poly(A) sites are distinct from the rest of the genome. Interestingly, a large number of poly(A) sites correspond to putative antisense transcripts that overlap with the promoter of the associated sense transcript, a mode previously demonstrated to regulate sense gene expression. Our results suggest that APA plays a far greater role in gene expression in plants than previously expected.

Solanaceae XIPs are plasma membrane aquaporins that facilitate the transport of many uncharged substrates

Major intrinsic proteins (MIPs) transport water and uncharged solutes across membranes in all kingdoms of life. Recently, an uncharacterized MIP subfamily was identified in the genomes of plants and fungi and named X Intrinsic Proteins (XIPs). Here, we describe the genetic features, localization, expression, and functions of a group of Solanaceae XIPs. XIP cDNA and gDNA were cloned from tobacco, potato, tomato, and morning glory. A conserved sequence motif in the first intron of Solanaceae XIPs initiates an RNA-processing mechanism that results in two splice variants (α and β). When transiently or stably expressed in tobacco plants, yellow fluorescent protein-tagged NtXIP1;1α and NtXIP1;1β were both localized in the plasma membrane. Transgenic tobacco lines expressing NtXIP1;1-promoter-GUS constructs and RT-PCR studies showed that NtXIP1;1 was expressed in all organs. The NtXIP1;1 promoter was mainly active in cell layers facing the environment in all above-ground tissues. Heterologous expression of Solanaceae XIPs in Xenopus laevis oocytes and various Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutants demonstrated that these isoforms facilitate the transport of bulky solutes, such as glycerol, urea, and boric acid. In contrast, permeability for water was undetectable. These data suggest that XIPs function in the transport of uncharged solutes across the cell plasma membrane in specific plant tissues, including at the interface between the environment and external cell layers.

Cell-type specific analysis of translating RNAs in developing flowers reveals new levels of control

Combining translating ribosome affinity purification with RNA-seq for cell-specific profiling of translating RNAs in developing flowers.

Cell type comparisons of cell type-specific hormone responses, promoter motifs, coexpressed cognate binding factor candidates, and splicing isoforms.

Widespread post-transcriptional regulation at both the intron splicing and translational stages.

A new class of noncoding RNAs associated with polysomes.

What constitutes a differentiated cell type? How much do cell types differ in their transcription of genes? The development and functions of tissues rely on constant interactions among distinct and nonequivalent cell types. Answering these questions will require quantitative information on transcriptomes, proteomes, protein–protein interactions, protein–nucleic acid interactions, and metabolomes at cellular resolution. The systems approaches emerging in biology promise to explain properties of biological systems based on genome-wide measurements of expression, interaction, regulation, and metabolism. To facilitate a systems approach, it is essential first to capture such components in a global manner, ideally at cellular resolution.

Recently, microarray analysis of transcriptomes has been extended to a cellular level of resolution by using laser microdissection or fluorescence-activated sorting (for review, see Nelson et al, 2008). These methods have been limited by stresses associated with cellular separation and isolation procedures, and biases associated with mandatory RNA amplification steps. A newly developed method, translating ribosome affinity purification (TRAP; Zanetti et al, 2005; Heiman et al, 2008; Mustroph et al, 2009), circumvents these problems by epitopetagging a ribosomal protein in specific cellular domains to selectively purify polysomes. We combined TRAP with deep sequencing, which we term TRAP-seq, to provide cell-level spatiotemporal maps for Arabidopsis early floral development at single-base resolution.

Flower development in Arabidopsis has been studied extensively and is one of the best understood aspects of plant development (for review, see Krizek and Fletcher, 2005). Genetic analysis of homeotic mutants established the ABC model, in which three classes of regulatory genes, A, B and C, work in a combinatorial manner to confer organ identities of four whorls (Coen and Meyerowitz, 1991). Each class of regulatory gene is expressed in a specific and evolutionarily conserved domain, and the action of the class A, B and C genes is necessary for specification of organ identity (Figure 1A).

Using TRAP-seq, we purified cell-specific translating mRNA populations, which we and others call the translatome, from the A, B and C domains of early developing flowers, in which floral patterning and the specification of floral organs is established. To achieve temporal specificity, we used a floral induction system to facilitate collection of early stage flowers (Wellmer et al, 2006). The combination of TRAP-seq with domain-specific promoters and this floral induction system enabled fine spatiotemporal isolation of translating mRNA in specific cellular domains, and at specific developmental stages.

Multiple lines of evidence confirmed the specificity of this approach, including detecting the expression in expected domains but not in other domains for well-studied flower marker genes and known physiological functions (Figures 1B–D and 2A–C). Furthermore, we provide numerous examples from flower development in which a spatiotemporal map of rigorously comparable cell-specific translatomes makes possible new views of the properties of cell domains not evident in data obtained from whole organs or tissues, including patterns of transcription and cis-regulation, new physiological differences among cell domains and between flower stages, putative hormone-active centers, and splicing events specific for flower domains (Figure 2A–D). Such findings may provide new targets for reverse genetics studies and may aid in the formulation and validation of interaction and pathway networks.

Beside cellular heterogeneity, the transcriptome is regulated at several steps through the life of mRNA molecules, which are not directly available through traditional transcriptome profiling of total mRNA abundance. By comparing the translatome and transcriptome, we integratively profiled two key posttranscriptional control points, intron splicing and translation state. From our translatome-wide profiling, we (i) confirmed that both posttranscriptional regulation control points were used by a large portion of the transcriptome; (ii) identified a number of cis-acting features within the coding or noncoding sequences that correlate with splicing or translation state; and (iii) revealed correlation between each regulation mechanism and gene function. Our transcriptome-wide surveys have highlighted target genes transcripts of which are probably under extensive posttranscriptional regulation during flower development.

Finally, we reported the finding of a large number of polysome-associated ncRNAs. About one-third of all annotated ncRNA in the Arabidopsis genome were observed co-purified with polysomes. Coding capacity analysis confirmed that most of them are real ncRNA without conserved ORFs. The group of polysome-associated ncRNA reported in this study is a potential new addition to the expanding riboregulator catalog; they could have roles in translational regulation during early flower development.

Determining both the expression levels of mRNA and the regulation of its translation is important in understanding specialized cell functions. In this study, we describe both the expression profiles of cells within spatiotemporal domains of the Arabidopsis thaliana flower and the post-transcriptional regulation of these mRNAs, at nucleotide resolution. We express a tagged ribosomal protein under the promoters of three master regulators of flower development. By precipitating tagged polysomes, we isolated cell type-specific mRNAs that are probably translating, and quantified those mRNAs through deep sequencing. Cell type comparisons identified known cell-specific transcripts and uncovered many new ones, from which we inferred cell type-specific hormone responses, promoter motifs and coexpressed cognate binding factor candidates, and splicing isoforms. By comparing translating mRNAs with steady-state overall transcripts, we found evidence for widespread post-transcriptional regulation at both the intron splicing and translational stages. Sequence analyses identified structural features associated with each step. Finally, we identified a new class of noncoding RNAs associated with polysomes. Findings from our profiling lead to new hypotheses in the understanding of flower development.

Common introns within orthologous genes: software and application to plants

The residence of spliceosomal introns within protein-coding genes can fluctuate over time, with genes gaining, losing or conserving introns in a complex process that is not entirely understood. One approach for studying intron evolution is to compare introns with respect to position and type within closely related genes. Here, we describe new, freely available software called Common Introns Within Orthologous Genes (CIWOG), available at http://ciwog.gdcb.iastate.edu/, which detects common introns in protein-coding genes based on position and sequence conservation in the corresponding protein alignments. CIWOG provides dynamic web displays that facilitate detailed intron studies within orthologous genes. User-supplied options control how introns are clustered into sets of common introns. CIWOG also identifies special classes of introns, in particular those with GC- or U12-type donor sites, which enables analyses of these introns in relation to their counterparts in the other genes in orthologous groups. The software is demonstrated with application to a comprehensive study of eight plant transcriptomes. Three specific examples are discussed: intron class conversion from GT- to GC-donor-type introns in monocots, plant U12-type intron conservation and a global analysis of intron evolution across the eight plant species.

Identification and expression analysis of WRKY transcription factor genes in canola (Brassica napus L.) in response to fungal pathogens and hormone treatments

BACKGROUND

Members of plant WRKY transcription factor families are widely implicated in defense responses and various other physiological processes. For canola (Brassica napus L.), no WRKY genes have been described in detail. Because of the economic importance of this crop, and its evolutionary relationship to Arabidopsis thaliana, we sought to characterize a subset of canola WRKY genes in the context of pathogen and hormone responses.

RESULTS

In this study, we identified 46 WRKY genes from canola by mining the expressed sequence tag (EST) database and cloned cDNA sequences of 38 BnWRKYs. A phylogenetic tree was constructed using the conserved WRKY domain amino acid sequences, which demonstrated that BnWRKYs can be divided into three major groups. We further compared BnWRKYs to the 72 WRKY genes from Arabidopsis and 91 WRKY from rice, and we identified 46 presumptive orthologs of AtWRKY genes. We examined the subcellular localization of four BnWRKY proteins using green fluorescent protein (GFP) and we observed the fluorescent green signals in the nucleus only.The responses of 16 selected BnWRKY genes to two fungal pathogens, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Alternaria brassicae, were analyzed by quantitative real time-PCR (qRT-PCR). Transcript abundance of 13 BnWRKY genes changed significantly following pathogen challenge: transcripts of 10 WRKYs increased in abundance, two WRKY transcripts decreased after infection, and one decreased at 12 h post-infection but increased later on (72 h). We also observed that transcript abundance of 13/16 BnWRKY genes was responsive to one or more hormones, including abscisic acid (ABA), and cytokinin (6-benzylaminopurine, BAP) and the defense signaling molecules jasmonic acid (JA), salicylic acid (SA), and ethylene (ET). We compared these transcript expression patterns to those previously described for presumptive orthologs of these genes in Arabidopsis and rice, and observed both similarities and differences in expression patterns.

CONCLUSION

We identified a set of 13 BnWRKY genes from among 16 BnWRKY genes assayed, that are responsive to both fungal pathogens and hormone treatments, suggesting shared signaling mechanisms for these responses. This study suggests that a large number of BnWRKY proteins are involved in the transcriptional regulation of defense-related genes in response to fungal pathogens and hormone stimuli.