Effect of various nutrient limitations on fatty acid production by Rhodotorula glutinis

Screening for the production of polyunsaturated fatty acids and cerebrosides in fungi

AIMS

To investigate fatty acid, including polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and cerebroside production of a large diversity of fungi from the Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Mucoromycota phyla.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Seventy-nine fungal strains were grown in Kavadia medium using a microcultivation system, i.e. Duetz microtiter plates. Following cultivation, fatty acid and cerebroside contents were analyzed by gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID) and high performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC), respectively. Mucoromycota fungi appeared as the most promising candidates for omega-6 PUFA production. The best omega-6 producer, including γ-linolenic acid (GLA, 18:3n-6), was Mucor fragilis UBOCC-A109196 with a concentration of 647 mg L-1 total omega-6 PUFA (representing 35% of total fatty acids) and 225 mg L-1 GLA (representing 12% of total fatty acids). Arachidonic acid concentration (20:4n-6) was the highest in Mortierella alpina UBOCC-A-112046, reaching 255 mg L-1 and 18.56% of total fatty acids. Interestingly, several fungal strains were shown to produce omega-7 monounsaturated fatty acids. Indeed, Torulaspora delbrueckii strains accumulated palmitoleic acid (16:1n-7) up to 20% of total fatty acids, reaching 114 mg L-1 in T. delbrueckii UBOCC-A-214128, while C. elegans UBOCC-A-102008 produced mainly paullinic acid (20:1n-7) with concentrations up to 100 mg L-1. Concerning cerebroside production, HPTLC appeared as a relevant approach for their detection and quantification. Promising candidates belonging to the Mucoromycota phylum were found, especially in the Absidia genus with A. spinosa UBOCC-A-101332 as the best producer (12.7 mg L-1).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study highlighted PUFA and cerebroside production in a large diversity of fungi and the fact that members of the Mucoromycota phylum are good producers of PUFA as well as cerebrosides.

Oleaginous yeasts for biochemicals, biofuels and food from lignocellulose-hydrolysate and crude glycerol

Microbial lipids produced from lignocellulose and crude glycerol (CG) can serve as sustainable alternatives to vegetable oils, whose production is, in many cases, accompanied by monocultures, land use changes or rain forest clearings. Our projects aim to understand the physiology of microbial lipid production by oleaginous yeasts, optimise the production and establish novel applications of microbial lipid compounds. We have established methods for fermentation and intracellular lipid quantification. Following the kinetics of lipid accumulation in different strains, we found high variability in lipid formation even between very closely related oleaginous yeast strains on both, wheat straw hydrolysate and CG. For example, on complete wheat straw hydrolysate, we saw that one Rhodotorula glutinis strain, when starting assimilating D-xylosealso assimilated the accumulated lipids, while a Rhodotorula babjevae strain could accumulate lipids on D-xylose. Two strains (Rhodotorula toruloides CBS 14 and R. glutinis CBS 3044) were found to be the best out of 27 tested to accumulate lipids on CG. Interestingly, the presence of hemicellulose hydrolysate stimulated glycerol assimilation in both strains. Apart from microbial oil, R. toruloides also produces carotenoids. The first attempts of extraction using the classical acetone-based method showed that β-carotene is the major carotenoid. However, there are indications that there are also substantial amounts of torulene and torularhodin, which have a very high potential as antioxidants.

Current advances for omics-guided process optimization of microbial manufacturing

Currently, microbial manufacturing is widely used in various fields, such as food, medicine and energy, for its advantages of greenness and sustainable development. Process optimization is the committed step enabling the commercialization of microbial manufacturing products. However, the present optimization processes mainly rely on experience or trial-and-error method ignoring the intrinsic connection between cellular physiological requirement and production performance, so in many cases the productivity of microbial manufacturing could not been fully exploited at economically feasible cost. Recently, the rapid development of omics technologies facilitates the comprehensive analysis of microbial metabolism and fermentation performance from multi-levels of molecules, cells and microenvironment. The use of omics technologies makes the process optimization more explicit, boosting microbial manufacturing performance and bringing significant economic benefits and social value. In this paper, the traditional and omics technologies-guided process optimization of microbial manufacturing are systematically reviewed, and the future trend of process optimization is prospected.

Exploring Yeast Diversity to Produce Lipid-Based Biofuels from Agro-Forestry and Industrial Organic Residues

Exploration of yeast diversity for the sustainable production of biofuels, in particular biodiesel, is gaining momentum in recent years. However, sustainable, and economically viable bioprocesses require yeast strains exhibiting: (i) high tolerance to multiple bioprocess-related stresses, including the various chemical inhibitors present in hydrolysates from lignocellulosic biomass and residues; (ii) the ability to efficiently consume all the major carbon sources present; (iii) the capacity to produce lipids with adequate composition in high yields. More than 160 non-conventional (non-Saccharomyces) yeast species are described as oleaginous, but only a smaller group are relatively well characterised, including Lipomyces starkeyi, Yarrowia lipolytica, Rhodotorula toruloides, Rhodotorula glutinis, Cutaneotrichosporonoleaginosus and Cutaneotrichosporon cutaneum. This article provides an overview of lipid production by oleaginous yeasts focusing on yeast diversity, metabolism, and other microbiological issues related to the toxicity and tolerance to multiple challenging stresses limiting bioprocess performance. This is essential knowledge to better understand and guide the rational improvement of yeast performance either by genetic manipulation or by exploring yeast physiology and optimal process conditions. Examples gathered from the literature showing the potential of different oleaginous yeasts/process conditions to produce oils for biodiesel from agro-forestry and industrial organic residues are provided.

Identification, Quantification and Kinetic Study of Carotenoids and Lipids in Rhodotorula toruloides CBS 14 Cultivated on Wheat Straw Hydrolysate

Production of carotenoids and lipids by Rhodotorula toruloides CBS 14 cultivated on wheat straw hydrolysate was investigated. An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) method for carotenoid quantification was developed and validated. Saponification effects on individual carotenoid quantification were identified, and lipid and carotenoid kinetics during cultivation were determined. The carotenoids β-carotene, γ-carotene, torularhodin, and torulene were identified; β-carotene was the major carotenoid, reaching a maximum of 1.48 mg/100 g dry weight. Recoveries of the carotenoids were between 66 and 76%, except torulene and torularhodin, which had lower recoveries due to saponification effects. Total carotenoid content in saponified and unsaponified yeast extract, respectively, determined by UHPLC or photometer, respectively, was 1.99 mg/100 g and 4.02 mg β-EQ/100 g dry weight. Growth kinetics showed a positive correlation between carotenoid content and lipid accumulation. β-carotene was the major carotenoid at all time points. At the end of the cultivation, triacylglycerols (TAGs) were the major lipid class, with 58.1 ± 3.32% of total lipids. There was also a high proportion of free fatty acids, reaching from 20.5 to 41.8% of total lipids. Oleic acid (C18:1) was the major fatty acid. The lipid yield at the end of the cultivation was 0.13 g/g of sugar consumed.

The history, state of the art and future prospects for oleaginous yeast research

Lipid-based biofuels, such as biodiesel and hydroprocessed esters, are a central part of the global initiative to reduce the environmental impact of the transport sector. The vast majority of production is currently from first-generation feedstocks, such as rapeseed oil, and waste cooking oils. However, the increased exploitation of soybean oil and palm oil has led to vast deforestation, smog emissions and heavily impacted on biodiversity in tropical regions. One promising alternative, potentially capable of meeting future demand sustainably, are oleaginous yeasts. Despite being known about for 143 years, there has been an increasing effort in the last decade to develop a viable industrial system, with currently around 100 research papers published annually. In the academic literature, approximately 160 native yeasts have been reported to produce over 20% of their dry weight in a glyceride-rich oil. The most intensively studied oleaginous yeast have been Cutaneotrichosporon oleaginosus (20% of publications), Rhodotorula toruloides (19%) and Yarrowia lipolytica (19%). Oleaginous yeasts have been primarily grown on single saccharides (60%), hydrolysates (26%) or glycerol (19%), and mainly on the mL scale (66%). Process development and genetic modification (7%) have been applied to alter yeast performance and the lipids, towards the production of biofuels (77%), food/supplements (24%), oleochemicals (19%) or animal feed (3%). Despite over a century of research and the recent application of advanced genetic engineering techniques, the industrial production of an economically viable commodity oil substitute remains elusive. This is mainly due to the estimated high production cost, however, over the course of the twenty-first century where climate change will drastically change global food supply networks and direct governmental action will likely be levied at more destructive crops, yeast lipids offer a flexible platform for localised, sustainable lipid production. Based on data from the large majority of oleaginous yeast academic publications, this review is a guide through the history of oleaginous yeast research, an assessment of the best growth and lipid production achieved to date, the various strategies employed towards industrial production and importantly, a critical discussion about what needs to be built on this huge body of work to make producing a yeast-derived, more sustainable, glyceride oil a commercial reality.

Lipid production by oleaginous yeasts

Microbial lipid production has been studied extensively for years; however, lipid metabolic engineering in many of the extraordinarily high lipid-accumulating yeasts was impeded by inadequate understanding of the metabolic pathways including regulatory mechanisms defining their oleaginicity and the limited genetic tools available. The aim of this review is to highlight the prominent oleaginous yeast genera, emphasizing their oleaginous characteristics, in conjunction with diverse other features such as cheap carbon source utilization, withstanding the effect of inhibitory compounds, commercially favorable fatty acid composition-all supporting their future development as economically viable lipid feedstock. The unique aspects of metabolism attributing to their oleaginicity are accentuated in the pretext of outlining the various strategies successfully implemented to improve the production of lipid and lipid-derived metabolites. A large number of in silico data generated on the lipid accumulation in certain oleaginous yeasts have been carefully curated, as suggestive evidences in line with the exceptional oleaginicity of these organisms. The different genetic elements developed in these yeasts to execute such strategies have been scrupulously inspected, underlining the major types of newly-found and synthetically constructed promoters, transcription terminators, and selection markers. Additionally, there is a plethora of advanced genetic toolboxes and techniques described, which have been successfully used in oleaginous yeasts in the recent years, promoting homologous recombination, genome editing, DNA assembly, and transformation at remarkable efficiencies. They can accelerate and effectively guide the rational designing of system-wide metabolic engineering approaches pinpointing the key targets for developing industrially suitable yeast strains.

Integration of continuous-high cell density-fed-batch fermentation for Aurantiochytrium limacinum for simultaneous high biomass, lipids and docosahexaenoic acid production

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) rich oil or biomass is currently being produced by fermentation of thraustochytrids by repeated fed-batch. Continuous cultivation has not been successful for DHA production because of excess carbon and limited nitrogen conditions requirement. The present study describes an alternative integrative fermentation strategy to simultaneously produce high cell density, lipids and DHA in continuous mode for Aurantiochytrium limacinum. The high cell density system (≥120 g/L DCW basis) on carbon feeding led to DHA productivity of 0.508 g/L.h on poultry waste based medium with a process time of 48-54 h. The strategy integrates the advantages of repeated fed-batch for high cell densities and DHA content in continuous cultivation.

Microbial Lipid Alternatives to Plant Lipids

Lipids are in high demand in food production, nutritional supplements, detergents, lubricants, and biofuels. Different oil seeds produced from plants are conventionally extracted to yield lipids. With increasing population and reduced availability of cultivable land, conventional methods of producing lipids alone will not satisfy increasing demand. Lipids produced using different microbial sources are considered as sustainable alternative to plant derived lipids. Various microorganisms belonging to the genera of algae, bacteria, yeast, fungi, or marine-derived microorganisms such as thraustochytrids possess the ability to accumulate lipids in their cells. A variety of microbial production technologies are being used to cultivate these organisms under specific conditions using agricultural residues as carbon source to be cost competitive with plant derived lipids. Microbial oils, also known as single cell oils, have many advantages when compared with plant derived lipids, such as shorter life cycle, less labor required, season and climate independence, no use of arable land and ease of scale-up. In this chapter we compare the lipids derived from plants and different microorganisms. We also highlight various analytical techniques that are being used to characterize the lipids produced in oleaginous organisms and their applications in various processes.

Systems analysis of phosphate-limitation-induced lipid accumulation by the oleaginous yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides

BACKGROUND

Lipid accumulation by oleaginous microorganisms is of great scientific interest and biotechnological potential. While nitrogen limitation has been routinely employed, low-cost raw materials usually contain rich nitrogenous components, thus preventing from efficient lipid production. Inorganic phosphate (Pi) limitation has been found sufficient to promote conversion of sugars into lipids, yet the molecular basis of cellular response to Pi limitation and concurrent lipid accumulation remains elusive.

RESULTS

Here, we performed multi-omic analyses of the oleaginous yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides to shield lights on Pi-limitation-induced lipid accumulation. Samples were prepared under Pi-limited as well as Pi-repleted chemostat conditions, and subjected to analysis at the transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic levels. In total, 7970 genes, 4212 proteins, and 123 metabolites were identified. Results showed that Pi limitation facilitates up-regulation of Pi-associated metabolism, RNA degradation, and triacylglycerol biosynthesis while down-regulation of ribosome biosynthesis and tricarboxylic acid cycle. Pi limitation leads to dephosphorylation of adenosine monophosphate and the allosteric activator of isocitrate dehydrogenase key to lipid biosynthesis. It was found that NADPH, the key cofactor for fatty acid biosynthesis, is limited due to reduced flux through the pentose phosphate pathway and transhydrogenation cycle and that this can be overcome by over-expression of an endogenous malic enzyme. These phenomena are found distinctive from those under nitrogen limitation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that Pi limitation activates Pi-related metabolism, RNA degradation, and TAG biosynthesis while inhibits ribosome biosynthesis and TCA cycle, leading to enhanced carbon fluxes into lipids. The information greatly enriches our understanding on microbial oleaginicity and Pi-related metabolism. Importantly, systems data may facilitate designing advanced cell factories for production of lipids and related oleochemicals.

Metabolic engineering of the oleaginous yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides IFO0880 for lipid overproduction during high-density fermentation

Natural lipids can be used to make biodiesel and many other value-added compounds. In this work, we explored a number of different metabolic engineering strategies for increasing lipid production in the oleaginous yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides IFO0880. These included increasing the expression of enzymes involved in different aspects of lipid biosynthesis-malic enzyme (ME), pyruvate carboxylase (PYC1), glycerol-3-P dehydrogenase (GPD), and stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD)-and deleting the gene PEX10, required for peroxisome biogenesis. Only malic enzyme and stearoyl-CoA desaturase, when overexpressed, were found to significantly increase lipid production. Only stearoyl-CoA desaturase, when overexpressed, further increased lipid production in a strain previously engineered to overexpress acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC1) and diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGA1). Our best strain produced 27.4 g/L lipid with an average productivity of 0.31 g/L/h during batch growth on glucose and 89.4 g/L lipid with an average productivity of 0.61 g/L/h during fed-batch growth on glucose. These results further establish R. toruloides as a platform organism for the production of lipids and potentially other lipid-derived compounds from sugars.

Production of Palmitoleic and Linoleic Acid in Oleaginous and Nonoleaginous Yeast Biomass

We investigated the possibility of utilizing both oleaginous yeast species accumulating large amounts of lipids (Yarrowia lipolytica, Rhodotorula glutinis, Trichosporon cutaneum, and Candida sp.) and traditional biotechnological nonoleaginous ones (Kluyveromyces polysporus, Torulaspora delbrueckii, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) as potential producers of dietetically important major fatty acids. The main objective was to examine the cultivation conditions that would induce a high ratio of dietary fatty acids and biomass. Though genus-dependent, the type of nitrogen source had a higher influence on biomass yield than the C/N ratio. The nitrogen source leading to the highest lipid accumulation was potassium nitrate, followed by ammonium sulfate, which is an ideal nitrogen source supporting, in both oleaginous and nonoleaginous species, sufficient biomass growth with concomitantly increased lipid accumulation. All yeast strains displayed high (70–90%) content of unsaturated fatty acids in total cell lipids. The content of dietary fatty acids of interest, namely, palmitoleic acid and linoleic acid, reached in Kluyveromyces and Trichosporon strains over 50% of total fatty acids and the highest yield, over 280 mg per g of dry cell weight of these fatty acids, was observed in Trichosporon with ammonium sulfate as nitrogen source at C/N ratio 70.

Microbial lipid production by oleaginous yeasts on Laminaria residue hydrolysates

Laminaria residues, major wastes from the kelp industry, can be effectively converted by oleaginous yeasts into microbial lipids as potential feedstock for biodiesel production.

Conversion of SPORL pretreated Douglas fir forest residues into microbial lipids with oleaginous yeasts

Sugars were extracted from Douglas fir residues using SPORL pretreatment and cellulases. The sugars were converted to lipids producing a titer of 13.4 g l⁻¹ in 3 d using a 2-stage culture.

Enhancing the lipid productivity of yeasts with trace concentrations of iron nanoparticles

Oxidative stress induced by zero-valent iron nanoparticles (nZVIs) was used to improve lipid accumulation in various oleaginous and non-oleginous yeasts-Candida sp., Kluyveromyces polysporus, Rhodotorula glutinis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Torulospora delbrueckii, Trichosporon cutaneum, and Yarrowia lipolytica. The highest lipid yields occurred at 9-13 mg/L nZVIs. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used for the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the fatty acids. It showed an increasing abundance of polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially essential linoleic acid, in the presence of nZVIs. Our results suggest that nZVIs can be used to improve not only lipid production by oleaginous microorganisms but also the nutritional value of biosynthesized unsaturated fatty acids.

Engineering Rhodosporidium toruloides for increased lipid production

Oleaginous yeast are promising organisms for the production of lipid-based chemicals and fuels from simple sugars. In this work, we explored Rhodosporidium toruloides for the production of lipid-based products. This oleaginous yeast natively produces lipids at high titers and can grow on glucose and xylose. As a first step, we sequenced the genomes of two strains, IFO0880, and IFO0559, and generated draft assemblies and annotations. We then used this information to engineer two R. toruloides strains for increased lipid production by over-expressing the native acetyl-CoA carboxylase and diacylglycerol acyltransferase genes using Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation. Our best strain, derived from IFO0880, was able to produce 16.4 ± 1.1 g/L lipid from 70 g/L glucose and 9.5 ± 1.3 g/L lipid from 70 g/L xylose in shake-flask experiments. This work represents one of the first examples of metabolic engineering in R. toruloides and establishes this yeast as a new platform for production of fatty-acid derived products.

New yeast-based approaches in production of palmitoleic acid

Palmitoleic acid is found in certain dairy products and has broad applications in medicine and cosmetics. We tried to find a suitable producer of this acid among traditional biotechnological yeast species (Kluyveromyces polysporus, Torulaspora delbrueckii, Saccharomyces cerevisiae) characterized by high biomass yield and Candida krusei, Yarrowia lipolytica and Trichosporon cutaneum accumulating large amounts of lipids. The main factor affecting the content of palmitoleic acid was found to be the C/N ratio in the culture medium, with ammonium sulfate as an optimum nitrogen source leading to highest biomass yield with concomitantly increased lipid accumulation, and an increased content of ω6-linoleic acid, the precursor of prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes. We found that C. krusei can be conveniently used for the purpose, albeit only under certain cultivation conditions, whereas S. cerevisiae can produce high and stable amounts of palmitoleic acid in a broad range of cultivation conditions ranging from conventional to nutrient limitations.

Phosphate transporter mediated lipid accumulation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae under phosphate starvation conditions

In the current study, when phosphate transporters pho88 and pho86 were knocked out they resulted in significant accumulation (84% and 43%) of triacylglycerol (TAG) during phosphate starvation. However in the presence of phosphate, TAG accumulation was only around 45% in both pho88 and pho86 mutant cells. These observations were confirmed by radio-labeling, fluorescent microscope and RT-PCR studies. The TAG synthesizing genes encoding for acyltransferases namely LRO1 and DGA1 were up regulated. This is the first report for accumulation of TAG in pho88Δ and pho86Δ cells under phosphate starvation conditions.

Impact of phosphate concentration on docosahexaenoic acid production and related enzyme activities in fermentation of Schizochytrium sp

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an important and widely used infant food additive. In this study, the effects of phosphate concentration on lipid and especially DHA synthesis in the oleaginous fungi Schizochytrium sp. HX-308 have been investigated in batch cultures. The maximum DHA yield (8.9 g/L) and DHA productivity (148.3 mg/L h) in 0.1 g/L KH2PO4 concentration were higher than the DHA yield (6.2 g/L) and DHA productivity (86.1 mg/L h) in 4 g/L KH2PO4 concentration. Furthermore, differences in related enzyme activities (malic enzyme, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and NAD(+)-isocitrate dehydrogenase) between phosphate-sufficient and phosphate-limitation conditions were assayed. The results showed that the phosphate-limitation condition could maintain higher activities of malic enzyme and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in addition to lower activity of NAD(+)-isocitrate dehydrogenase. In addition, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase might be the main supplier of NADPH at the early stage of fermentation while malic enzyme might be the provider at the late stage. This information might explain the regulation mechanism of phosphate limitation for lipid production and be useful for further DHA production enhancement.

Screening of Industrial Wastewaters as Feedstock for the Microbial Production of Oils for Biodiesel Production and High-Quality Pigments

The production of biodiesel has notably increased over the past decade. Currently, plant oil is the main feedstock for biodiesel production, but, due to concerns related to the competition with food production, alternative oil feedstocks have to be found. Oleaginous yeasts are known to produce high amounts of lipids, but no integrated process from microbial fermentation to final biodiesel production has reached commercial realization yet due to economic constraints. Therefore, growth and lipid production of red yeastRhodotorula glutiniswas tested on low-cost substrates, namely, wastewaters from potato, fruit juice, and lettuce processing. Additionally, the production of carotenoids as high-value by-products was examined. All evaluated wastewaters met the general criteria for microbial lipid production. However, no significant increase in lipid content was observed, probably due to lack of available carbon in wastewaters from fruit juice and lettuce processing, and excess of available nitrogen in potato processing wastewater, respectively. During growth on wastewaters from fruit juice and lettuce processing the carotenoid content increased significantly in the first 48 hours. The relations between carbon content, nitrogen content, and carotenoid production need to be further assessed. For economic viability, lipid and carotenoid production needs to be increased significantly. The screening of feedstocks should be extended to other wastewaters.

Microbial lipid production by Rhodosporidium toruloides under sulfate-limited conditions

Novel biochemical approaches remain to be developed to improve microbial lipid technology. This study demonstrated that sulfate limitation was effective to promote accumulating substantial amounts of intracellular lipid by the oleaginous yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides Y4. When it was cultivated using a medium with an initial carbon-to-sulfur (C/S) molar ratio of 46,750, cellular lipid content reached up to 58.3%. The time courses of cell growth, lipid accumulation and nutrient depletion were analyzed and discussed in terms of lipid biosynthesis. Moreover, lipid accumulation under sulfate-limited conditions was effective regardless of the presence of a high concentration of nitrogen sources. Thus, lipid contents almost held constant at near 57% in the media with an initial C/S molar ratio of 11,380 although the carbon-to-nitrogen molar ratio ranged from 28.3 to 5.7. Taken together, our results established the sulfate-limitation approach to control lipid biosynthesis, which should be valuable to explore nitrogen-rich raw materials as the feedstock for lipid production.

Phosphate-limitation mediated lipid production by Rhodosporidium toruloides

Nitrogen-limited conditions have been routinely prepared for efficient lipid production by oleaginous microorganisms. However, it is difficult to attain high cellular lipid contents with natural nitrogen-rich substrates. In the present study, we showed that lipid accumulation by Rhodosporidium toruloides Y4 was directly linked to the carbon to phosphorus (C/P) molar ratios of the culture media. Moreover, such lipid accumulation phenomena were effective regardless of the presence of high amounts of nitrogen sources. Thus, cellular lipid content and lipid yield were 62.2% and 0.205 g/g glucose, respectively, using a medium with a carbon to nitrogen (C/N) molar ratio of 6.1 and a C/P molar ratio of 9552. This work suggested that phosphorus limitation can be equally effective and efficient to mediate lipid accumulation, which in turn, provides opportunities to produce microbial lipid more economically using natural or waste materials with high nitrogen content.

[Studies on the effects of carbon:nitrogen ratio, inoculum type and yeast extract addition on jasmonic acid production by Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat. strain RC1]

Jasmonic acid is a native plant growth regulator produced by algae, microorganisms and higher plants. This regulator is involved in the activation of defence mechanisms against pathogens and wounding in plants. Studies concerning the effects of carbon: nitrogen ratio (C/Nr: 17, 35 and 70), type of inoculum (spores or mycelium) and the yeast extract addition in the media on jasmonic acid production by Botryodiplodia theobromae were evaluated. Jasmonic acid production was stimulated at the carbon: nitrogen ratio of 17. Jasmonic acid productivity was higher in the media inoculated with mycelium and in the media with yeast extract 1.7 and 1.3 times, respectively.

Nutritional regulation and kinetics of flocculosin synthesis by Pseudozyma flocculosa

This study sought to identify the factors and conditions that affected production of the antifungal glycolipid flocculosin by the biocontrol agent Pseudozyma flocculosa. For this purpose, different parameters known or reported to influence glycolipid release in fungi were tested. Concentration of the start-up inoculum was found to play an important role in flocculosin production, as the optimal level increased productivity by as much as tenfold. Carbon availability and nitrogen source (i.e., organic vs inorganic) both had a direct influence on the metabolism of P. flocculosa, leading to flocculosin synthesis. In general, if conditions were conducive for production of the glycolipid, carbon availability appeared to be the only limiting factor. On the other hand, if yeast extract was supplied as nitrogen source, fungal biomass was immediately stimulated to the detriment of flocculosin synthesis. Unlike other reports of glycolipid release by yeast-like fungi, inorganic nitrogen starvation did not trigger production of flocculosin. The relationship between the factors influencing flocculosin production in vitro and the conditions affecting the release of the molecule by P. flocculosa in its natural habitat appears to be linked to the availability of a suitable and plentiful food source for the biocontrol agent.

Lipid accumulation in Schizochytrium G13/2S produced in continuous culture

Lipid and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) accumulation into Schizochytrium G13/2S was studied under batch and continuous culture. Different glucose and glutamate concentrations were supplemented in a defined medium. During batch cultivation, lipid accumulation, 35% total fatty acids (TFA) occurred at the arithmetic growth phase but ceased when cell growth stopped. When continuous culture was performed under different glutamate concentrations, nitrogen-growth-limiting conditions induced the accumulation of 30-28% TFA in Schizochytrium. As the dilution rate decreased from 0.08 to 0.02 h(-1), both cell dry weight and TFA content of the cell increased. Under a constant dilution rate of 0.04 h(-1), carbon-limiting conditions decreased the TFA to 22%. Fatty acid profile was not affected by the different nutrient concentrations provided during continuous culture. Consequently, lipid accumulation can be induced through the carbon and nitrogen source concentration in the medium to maximise the TFA and subsequently DHA productivity by this microorganism.

A novel lipolytic activity of Rhodotorula glutinis cells: production, partial characterization and application in the synthesis of esters

Cell-bound lipase activity (10 pNPL units/g dry cell weight) was released when the yeast Rhodotorula glutinis was cultured in a 7-l stirred tank fermentor using palm-oil as the sole carbon source. The enzyme showed relative specificity towards medium chain organic acids since the apparent K(m) values for pNPB (p-NitroPhenyl-Butyrate) and pNPL (p-NitroPhenyl-Laurate) were equal to 2.7 and 0.7 mM, respectively. In addition, 80% of this activity could be detected on the surface of the cells. The cell-bound nature of the enzyme increased its thermal stability showing half-life times of 200 and 60 min at 50 and 60 degrees C, respectively, as well as good stability in organic solvents. Freeze-dried cell preparations were successfully used to catalyze the synthesis of fatty acid esters of butanol and heptanol in nearly anhydrous organic solvents. A conversion of 60-62% was obtained upon esterification of palmitic or oleic acid with butanol, within 96 h. The enzyme preparation was used in four consecutive batch reactions with only 10% loss of activity.

Fed-batch bioreactor production of mannosylerythritol lipids secreted by Pseudozyma aphidis

Two strains of Pseudozyma aphidis, DSM 70725 and DSM 14930, were used for the bioreactor production of mannosylerythritol lipids (MELs). Foam formation interfered substantially with the cultivation process. Soybean oil was simultaneously employed as both carbon source and anti-foam agent. Primary MEL formation occurred after nitrate limitation. After a first short time-period of nitrate limitation and further nitrate addition, MELs were secreted in spite of nitrate excess. The sedimentation of MEL-enriched beads indicated enhanced product formation. Maximum yield, productivity and yield coefficient of 165 g l(-1), 13.9 g l(-1) day(-1) and 0.92 g g(-1) were achieved using strain DSM 14930 with additional substrate-feeding (glucose, sodium nitrate, yeast extract) and a foam-controlled soybean oil supply.

Stability of cyclopropane and conjugated linoleic acids during fatty acid quantification in lactic acid bacteria

Seven methods commonly used for fatty acid analysis of microorganisms and foods were compared to establish the best for the analysis of lyophilized lactic acid bacteria. One of these methods involves fat extraction followed by methylation of fatty acids, while the other methods use a direct methylation of the samples, under different operating conditions (e.g., reaction temperature and time, reagents, and pH). Fatty acid methyl esters were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and quantified by on-column capillary gas chromatography. Two reliable methods for the analysis of fatty acids in bacteria were selected and further improved. They guarantee high recovery of classes of fragile fatty acids, such as cyclopropane and conjugated acids, and a high degree of methylation for all types of fatty acid esters. These two direct methylation methods have already been successfully applied to the analysis of fatty acids in foods. They represent a rapid and highly reliable alternative to classical time- and solvent-consuming methods and they give the fatty acid profile and the amount of each fatty acid. Using these methods, conjugated linoleic acids were identified and quantified in lactic acid bacteria.

Characteristics of Fps1-dependent and -independent glycerol transport in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Eadie-Hofstee plots of glycerol uptake in wild-type Saccharomyces cerevisiae W303-1A grown on glucose showed the presence of both saturable transport and simple diffusion, whereas an fps1delta mutant displayed only simple diffusion. Transformation of the fps1delta mutant with the glpF gene, which encodes glycerol transport in Escherichia coli, restored biphasic transport kinetics. Yeast extract-peptone-dextrose-grown wild-type cells had a higher passive diffusion constant than the fps1delta mutant, and ethanol enhanced the rate of proton diffusion to a greater extent in the wild type than in the fps1delta mutant. In addition, the lipid fraction of the fps1delta mutant contained a lower percentage of phospholipids and a higher percentage of glycolipids than that of the wild type. Fps1p, therefore, may be involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism in S. cerevisiae, affecting membrane permeability in addition to fulfilling its specific role in glycerol transport. Simultaneous uptake of glycerol and protons occurred in both glycerol- and ethanol-grown wild-type and fps1delta cells and resulted in the accumulation of glycerol at an inside-to-outside ratio of 12:1 to 15:1. Carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone prevented glycerol accumulation in both strains and abolished transport in the fps1delta mutant grown on ethanol. Likewise, 2,4-dinitrophenol inhibited transport in glycerol-grown wild-type cells. These results indicate the presence of an Fps1p-dependent facilitated diffusion system in glucose-grown cells and an Fps1p-independent proton symport system in derepressed cells.