Sertoli cells in the testis and epithelium of the ductuli efferentes are targets for 3H 1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D3. An autoradiographic study

Immunomodulatory Effects of Vitamin D in Pregnancy and Beyond

In addition to its role in calcium homeostasis and bone formation, a modulatory role of the active form of vitamin D on cells of the immune system, particularly T lymphocytes, has been described. The effects of vitamin D on the production and action of several cytokines has been intensively investigated in recent years. In this connection, deficiency of vitamin D has been associated with several autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), Hashimoto Thyroiditis (HT), and multiple sclerosis (MS). In a successful pregnancy, the maternal immune response needs to adapt to accommodate the semiallogeneic fetus. Disturbances in maternal tolerance are implicated in infertility and pregnancy complications such as miscarriages (RM) and preeclampsia (PE). It is well-known that a subset of T lymphocytes, regulatory T cells (Tregs) exhibit potent suppressive activity, and have a crucial role in curtailing the destructive response of the immune system during pregnancy, and preventing autoimmune diseases. Interestingly, vitamin D deficiency is common in pregnant women, despite the widespread use of prenatal vitamins, and adverse pregnancy outcomes such as RM, PE, intrauterine growth restriction have been linked to hypovitaminosis D during pregnancy. Research has shown that autoimmune diseases have a significant prevalence within the female population, and women with autoimmune disorders are at higher risk for adverse pregnancy outcomes. Provocatively, dysregulation of T cells plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of autoimmunity, and adverse pregnancy outcomes where these pathologies are also associated with vitamin D deficiency. This article reviews the immunomodulatory role of vitamin D in autoimmune diseases and pregnancy. In particular, we will describe the role of vitamin D from conception until delivery, including the health of the offspring. This review highlights an observational study where hypovitaminosis D was correlated with decreased fertility, increased disease activity, placental insufficiency, and preeclampsia in women with APS.

Significance of Leydig Cell Neoplasia in Rats Fed Lactitol or Lactose

Lactitol is a disaccharide sugar alcohol (polyol) which is derived from lactose by catalytic hydrogenation and which may be used as a noncariogenic, reduced calorie sugar substitute in different foods. In the context of the safety evaluation of lactitol, a chronic carcinogenicity/toxicity study was conducted in a Wistar-derived strain of rats. In addition to effects that occur commonly in rats fed high doses of polyols, an increased incidence of Leydig cell tumors was observed in rats fed a diet with 10% lactitol for their lifetime. A comparison group receiving a diet with 20% lactose exhibited the same effect. At the 5% dose level of lactitol, no testicular changes were seen. Although lactitol is not genotoxic in standard in vitro tests and was also not associated with tumor formation in female rats and mice of either sex, it was necessary to assess the relevance of the testicular neoplastic growth for human safety. A comparative evaluation of the spontaneous and chemically induced formation of Leydig cell tumors in rats and humans demonstrates that the spontaneous occurrence is extremely low in humans but rather high in rats. Chemical agents or experimental conditions that in rats are associated with interstitial cell hyperplasia or neoplasia have not been associated with similar effects in humans. This is also true for lactose which, in Western countries, is consumed regularly and in substantial amounts with dairy products. Since lactitol is essentially not hydrolyzed in the small intestine, it gains access to the metabolism only after fermentation by the intestinal flora. It is therefore reasonable to assume that the testicular effects of lactitol and lactose were mediated by changes in the digestive tract such as by the known increase of calcium absorption which occurs in lactitol- and lactose-fed rats but not in humans or by effects of these compounds on the enterohepatic cycling of steroid hormones. Although these mechanisms are not yet elucidated, the available data on Leydig cell tumors indicate that the effects seen in male rats are not relevant to humans. The major lines of evidence supporting the human safety of lactitol and lactose are: (1) the lack of genotoxicity of lactitol, (2) the rat specificity of the testicular effects of lactose and lactitol, (3) the long history of safe consumption of lactose in humans, (4) the insensitivity of the human Leydig cells to agents and conditions that are known to cause neoplastic growth of Leydig cells in rats, (5) the generally very low spontaneous incidence of Leydig cell tumors in the human population, and (6) the absence of any epidemiological evidence establishing a link between nutritional factors and the occurrence of Leydig cell tumors in humans.

Relevance of vitamin D in reproduction

The steroid hormone vitamin D is historically recognized for its relevance to bone health and calcium homeostasis. Recent years have witnessed a shift in focus to non-skeletal benefits of vitamin D; in this latter context, an accruing body of literature attests to a relevance of vitamin D to reproductive physiology. This article reviews the existing data about the diverse and previously underappreciated roles for vitamin D in reproductive health. A large body of available literature suggests that vitamin D deficiency may be detrimental to reproductive biology. However, given that our appreciation of vitamin D's role in reproductive physiology is almost entirely shaped by 'associative' studies and that data based on prospective interventional trials are limited, these concepts remain predominantly conjectural. Exact mechanisms whereby vitamin D may participate in the regulation of reproductive physiology remain far from clear. This review underscores a need for appropriately designed intervention trials to address the existing knowledge gaps and to delineate the specific roles of vitamin D signaling in reproductive biology.

Vitamin D metabolism, sex hormones, and male reproductive function

The spectrum of vitamin D (VD)-mediated effects has expanded in recent years, and VD is now recognized as a versatile signaling molecule rather than being solely a regulator of bone health and calcium homeostasis. One of the recently identified target areas of VD is male reproductive function. The VD receptor (VDR) and the VD metabolizing enzyme expression studies documented the presence of this system in the testes, mature spermatozoa, and ejaculatory tract, suggesting that both systemic and local VD metabolism may influence male reproductive function. However, it is still debated which cell is the main VD target in the testis and to what extent VD is important for sex hormone production and function of spermatozoa. This review summarizes descriptive studies on testicular VD metabolism and spatial distribution of VDR and the VD metabolizing enzymes in the mammalian testes and discusses mechanistic and association studies conducted in animals and humans. The reviewed evidence suggests some effects of VD on estrogen and testosterone biosynthesis and implicates involvement of both systemic and local VD metabolism in the regulation of male fertility potential.

Where is the vitamin D receptor?

The vitamin D receptor (VDR) is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily and plays a central role in the biological actions of vitamin D. VDR regulates the expression of numerous genes involved in calcium/phosphate homeostasis, cellular proliferation and differentiation, and immune response, largely in a ligand-dependent manner. To understand the global function of the vitamin D system in physiopathological processes, great effort has been devoted to the detection of VDR in various tissues and cells, many of which have been identified as vitamin D targets. This review focuses on the tissue- and cell type-specific distribution of VDR throughout the body.

Roosters affected by epididymal lithiasis present local alteration in vitamin D3, testosterone and estradiol levels as well as estrogen receptor 2 (β) expression

Epididymal lithiasis is a reproductive dysfunction of roosters that is associated with loss of fertility and is characterized by the formation of calcium stones in the lumen of the efferent ductules of the epididymal region. The efferent ductules of birds are responsible for the reabsorption of the fluid coming from the testis as well as luminal calcium. It has been hypothesized that the epididymal stone formation may be related to the impairment of local fluid or calcium homeostasis, which depends on hormones such as estradiol (E2). Therefore, this study aimed to investigate possible alterations in the expression of ERα (ESR1) and ERβ (ESR2) in the epididymal region of roosters affected by epididymal lithiasis. The study was performed by immunohistochemistry and western blotting assays. In addition, the concentrations of E2, vitamin D3, and testosterone, which are also key hormones in maintenance of calcium homeostasis, were determined in the plasma and epididymal region, by ELISA. It was observed that ESR2 expression is increased in all segments of the epididymal region of affected roosters, whereas ESR1 levels are not altered. Moreover, the hormone concentration profiles were changed, as in the epididymal region of roosters with lithiasis the E2levels were increased and vitamin D3 as well as testosterone concentrations were significantly decreased. These results suggest that a hormonal imbalance may be involved with the origin and progression of the epididymal lithiasis, possibly by affecting the local fluid or calcium homeostasis.

Interaction of the vitamin D receptor with a vitamin D response element in the Mullerian-inhibiting substance (MIS) promoter: regulation of MIS expression by calcitriol in prostate cancer cells

Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3)) inhibits the growth of a variety of cancer cells including human prostate cancer. Müllerian-inhibiting substance (MIS) also exhibits antiproliferative and proapoptotic actions on multiple cancer cells including human prostate cancer. In this study, we investigated whether calcitriol regulated MIS expression in prostate cancer, an action that might contribute to its antiproliferative activity. We identified a 15-bp sequence, GGGTGAgcaGGGACA, in the MIS promoter that was highly similar to direct repeat 3-type vitamin D response elements (VDREs). The human MIS promoter containing the putative VDRE was cloned into a luciferase reporter vector. In HeLa cells transfected with the vitamin D receptor (VDR), MIS promoter activity was stimulated by calcitriol. Coexpression of steroidogenic factor 1, a key regulator of MIS, increased basal MIS promoter activity that was further stimulated by calcitriol. Mutation or deletion of the VDRE reduced calcitriol-induced transactivation. In addition, the MIS VDRE conferred calcitriol responsiveness to a heterologous promoter. In gel shift assays, VDR and retinoid X receptor bound to the MIS VDRE and the binding was increased by calcitriol. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays showed that VDR and retinoid X receptor were present on the MIS promoter in prostate cancer cells. In conclusion, we demonstrated that MIS is a target of calcitriol action. MIS is up-regulated by calcitriol via a functional VDRE that binds the VDR. Up-regulation of MIS by calcitriol may be an important component of the antiproliferative actions of calcitriol in some cancers.

Association of vitamin D receptors with the nuclear matrix of human and rat genitourinary tissues

Calcitrol, 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25-D3) has an important role in the antiproliferative and growth regulatory effects on normal and neoplastic cells (e.g. prostate cancer cells). 1,25-D3 binds to the vitamin D receptor (VDR), a member of the steroid receptor superfamily. Steroids, via intranuclear receptors, have been demonstrated to have high affinity binding to the nuclear matrix, the tissue specific scaffolding of the nucleus that is involved in the organization of DNA, replication and transcription. We hypothesized that the VDR interacts closely with the nuclear matrix in both human and rat tissues. In the studies described here, nuclear matrix proteins (NMP) were extracted from a number of rat and human tissues and immunoblot analysis performed using a rat anti-VDR antibody. The results from these studies reveal that the anti-VDR antibody detects six forms of the VDR in the NMP preparations: human testis demonstrated a protein of 57 and 52 kDa molecular weight compared with 57 and 37 kDa in the rat testis. Human prostate demonstrated proteins of 52 kDa compared to rat ventral (57 and 37 kDa) and dorsal prostate (52 and 26 kDa). Human and rat bladder NMP demonstrated a protein binding at 55 kDa and rat seminal vesicle NMP binding at 48 kDa. This is the first report of VDRs associated with the nuclear matrix. The varying molecular weight proteins reactive with the anti-VDR antibody within these tissues may represent different isoforms, proteolytic cleavage of a larger VDR or post-translational modification. The VDR-NMP interaction may be involved in the tissue specific actions of 1,25-D3 especially growth regulatory and antiproliferative effects.

Receptor localization of steroid hormones and drugs: discoveries through the use of thaw-mount and dry-mount autoradiography

The history of receptor autoradiography, its development and applications, testify to the utility of this histochemical technique for localizing radiolabeled hormones and drugs at cellular and subcellular sites of action in intact tissues. Localization of diffusible compounds has been a challenge that was met through the introduction of the "thaw-mount" and "dry-mount" autoradiographic techniques thirty years ago. With this cellular receptor autoradiography, used alone or combined with other histochemical techniques, sites of specific binding and deposition in vivo and in vitro have been characterized. Numerous discoveries, some reviewed in this article, provided information that led to new concepts and opened new areas of research. As an example, in recent years more than fifty target tissues for vitamin D have been specified, challenging the conventional view about the main biological role of vitamin D. The functions of most of these vitamin D target tissues are unrelated to the regulation of systemic calcium homeostasis, but pertain to the (seasonal) regulation of endo- and exocrine secretion, cell proliferation, reproduction, neural, immune and cardiovascular responses, and adaptation to stress. Receptor autoradiography with cellular resolution has become an indispensable tool in drug research and development, since information can be obtained that is difficult or impossible to gain otherwise.

Immunohistochemical detection and distribution of the 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor in rat reproductive tissues

Vitamin D3, via its active metabolite 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, plays a critical part in male and female reproduction in the rat. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 activity is mediated by an intracellular receptor (VDR). VDR distribution in reproductive tissue has not been studied using antibodies against the receptor. We developed a polyclonal antibody against the VDR and used it to examine VDR distribution in male and female rat reproductive tissues. In rat testes, VDR epitopes were observed in seminiferous tubules, specifically in spermatogonia, Sertoli cells and spermatocytes. Spermatozoa stained faintly. Epithelial cells of the epididymis, seminal vesicles and prostate also expressed VDR epitopes. In the female rat reproductive tract, immunostaining for VDR was seen in ovarian follicles, specifically in granulosa cells. Weaker VDR immunostaining was observed in follicular thecal cells and in the ovarian stroma and germinal epithelium. Corpus luteal cells stained intensely for VDR. Epithelium of fallopian tubes and the uterus also contained VDR epitopes. Both nuclear and cytoplasmic VDR immunostaining was observed in male and female rat reproductive tissues. We conclude that the VDR is widely distributed in male and female reproductive tissues and that it is likely to mediate actions of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in the tissues.

The steroid hormone of sunlight soltriol (vitamin D) as a seasonal regulator of biological activities and photoperiodic rhythms

Neural and systemic somatotrophic effects of the ultraviolet component of sunlight through the skin-vitamin D endocrine system are considered as alternate or additional to the neuroendocrine effects of the visual component of light through the retino-diencephalic input. The extensive distribution of soltriol nuclear receptor cells, revealed by autoradiography with tritium-labeled 1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol (vitamin D, soltriol) and related effects, indicate an involvement of vitamin D-soltriol in the actinic induction of seasonal biorhythms. This is considered to be independent of the traditionally assigned effects of vitamin D on systemic calcium regulation. Skin-soltriol mediated seasonal, and to a degree daily, genomic activation involves many target regions in the brain. These include neurons in the central nucleus of the amygdala, in the linked part of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, in periventricular hypothalamic neurons, dorsal raphe nucleus, reticular thalamic nucleus and autonomic, endocrine as well as sensory and motor components of the brainstem and spinal cord. Additional to the eye-regulated "suprachiasmatic clock", existence of a soltriol-vitamin D regulated neural "timing circuit(s)" is proposed. Both, activational and organizational effects of soltriol on mature and developing brain regions, respectively are likely to play a role in the regulation of neuronal functions that include the modulation and entrainment of biorhythms. Soltriol's central effects correlate with peripheral effects on elements in skin, bone, teeth, kidney, intestine, heart and blood vessels, endocrine organs, and tissues of the immune and reproductive system.

Influence of calcitriol on prolactin and prostaglandin production by human decidua

Receptors for calcitriol are described in human decidua. They exhibit a dissociation constant of 35 +/- 6 pM and they are at concentrations similar to those found in other tissues (0.45 +/- 0.04 fmol/micrograms DNA). They are highly specific for calcitriol since neither of the other vitamin D3 derivatives nor the steroid hormone tested displaced labeled calcitriol from the receptor. Also, calcitriol at concentrations of 10(-13) to 10(-11) M stimulates prolactin secretion by dispersed decidual cells. At these concentrations, however, the hormone has no effect on prostaglandin production. The specificity of calcitriol action was further examined by studying the effect of estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, dexamethasone and cortisol, all at 10(-7) M, on the secretion of prolactin and prostaglandins. Under the conditions used in this study, the steroids have no effect on prolactin secretion; but dexamethasone significantly inhibits prostaglandin F2 alpha output by the cells. Taken together with previous studies from our laboratory demonstrating that decidua can synthesize calcitriol the present study indicates that this hormone has an autocrine effect on human decidual cells.

Vitamin D (soltriol), light, and reproduction

Evidence from autoradiographic studies with 1,25(OH)2-vitamin D3 (vitamin D, soltriol) labeled with tritium and from the literature indicates that the steroid hormone soltriol regulates and modulates reproductive processes in the female, as it does in the male. Nuclear receptors for soltriol have been discovered in the uterus, oviduct, ovary, mammary gland, placenta, and fetal membranes, as well as in the pituitary and hypothalamus. Soltriol is recognized as a transducer and hormonal messenger of sunlight, acting as a somatotropic activator and modulator of vital processes for the seasonal and estival adaptation of growth, development, and procreation. Its influence on calcium equilibrium is just one of its many functions to serve this goal. This article reviews experimental, clinical, and epidemiologic evidence that suggests the involvement of soltriol in the control of reproductive processes, noting its importance for the onset of puberty, fertility, pregnancy, lactation, and probably sexual behavior. Cooperative actions between soltriol and other steroid hormones, especially estradiol, are pointed out.

Multiple sites of action of the vitamin D endocrine system: FSH stimulation of testis 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptors

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)2D] receptors exist in numerous unexpected tissues. These include, for example, rat lung, heart, testis, and uterus, but not prostate and bladder. The issues of 1,25(OH)2D effects on and receptor location in the testis were addressed by (a) physiological and pharmacological manipulations of tubule cell types and (b) histological examination of testes of vitamin D-deficient rats. FSH treatment in hypophysectomized adult rats increased 1,25(OH)2D receptor levels by 135% (P less than 0.01). Busulfan treatment reduced testis receptor levels by 35% (P less than 0.05) after 35 days (maximum effect), and the effect was reversed after recovery (85 d). Cryptorchidism for 5 or 50 days resulted in modest (33%, P less than 0.05) or substantial (79%, P less than 0.001) reductions in receptor levels. Only the FSH treatment and 50 days cryptorchidism reduced receptor levels in the residual tissue. The testes of vit. D-deficient rats showed incomplete spermatogenesis and degenerative changes. Although interpretation is complicated by the intricate communication among testis cell types, these data suggest that the Sertoli cell is a primary site of action of 1,25(OH)2D in the testis. Moreover, these data indicate that 1,25(OH)2D receptor function in the testis relates to germ cell division/maturation, although this may be an indirect effect via the Sertoli cells.

The endocrinology of sunlight and darkness. Complementary roles of vitamin D and pineal hormones

Information from autoradiographic studies and follow-up indicates that 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 (soltriol) is a somatotrophic activator and modulator, regulated by the amount of sunshine and the endocrine status of the individual, with the purpose of promoting development, reproduction, and maintenance of life. Regulation of calcium homeostasis is only one of its many functions. A close link to the pineal hormone system is apparent. Evidence supports the new concept that the skin-derived hormone of sunlight and the pineal hormone(s) of darkness are messengers with comprehensive actions on endocrine, autonomic, sensory, skeletal, and motor functions. In a complementary fashion, both hormone systems appear to correlate biological activities with the daily and seasonal changes of our solar environment.

1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 sites of action in spinal cord and sensory ganglion

Autoradiographic studies revealed concentration of 3H 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 in nuclei of certain neurons in the spinal cord of adult and neonatal mice, fed a normal or a vitamin D deficient diet. Nuclear uptake and retention was strongest in motor neurons in lamina IX. Nuclear concentration also existed in neurons of lamina II, lamina VIII, lamina X and intermediate nucleus of the lateral column. The results indicate that these neurons are target neurons which contain nuclear receptors for 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3. This suggests that 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 has direct genomic actions on the innervation of skeletal muscle by exerting related trophic, secretory, and electrophysiological effects. In addition, these data point to direct genomic actions of 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 on spinal sensory perception, and on certain autonomic functions. Nuclear binding in certain neurons in the peripheral ganglion of the trigeminal nerve further suggests that sensory perception is influenced by 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 not only at the level of the substantia gelatinosa, but also at the level of spinal ganglia.

Vitamin D--soltriol the heliogenic steroid hormone: somatotrophic activator and modulator. Discoveries from histochemical studies lead to new concepts

Evidence from autoradiographic studies with 3H 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 (soltriol) about its many sites of nuclear binding and multiple actions suggests that the traditional view of "vitamin D and calcium" is too limited and requires modification. A new concept has been developed which proposes that the skin-derived hormone of sunshine, soltriol, is a somatotrophic activator and modulator that affects all vital systems. Regulation of calcium homeostasis is only one of its many actions. Target tissues for soltriol include not only bone, intestine and kidney, but also brain, spinal cord, pituitary, thyroid, endocrine pancreas, adrenal medulla, enteroendocrine cells, thymus, and male and female reproductive organs. Accordingly, actions of soltriol involve effects on autonomic and endocrine regulation with changes in tissue and blood hormone levels, innervation of skeletal muscle, immune and stress response, digestion, blood formation, fertility, pregnancy and lactation, general energy metabolism, mental processes and mood, and others. The skin-mediated transduction of short-wave sunlight induces a purposeful modulation of growth, reproduction and other biological activities in tune with the conditions of the sun cycle and season. Synthesis and actions of vitamin D3-soltriol are dependent not only on the amount of sunlight, but also on the availability of precursor in the skin and access of sunlight, the rate of hydroxylation in liver and kidney, and the modulation of these events by the endocrine status, in particular growth and reproduction. A concept of a five-level control of soltriol synthesis is proposed, in which the hydroxylation steps provide for a sensitive tuning. Relationships between the heliogenic skin-derived hormonal system and the helioprivic pineal-derived hormonal system are recognized and a comprehensive concept of the "endocrinology of sunlight and darkness" is pointed out.

Vitamin D sites of action in the pituitary studied by combined autoradiography-immunohistochemistry

Adult male and female mice under normal diet were injected with 3H 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 and sacrificed 3.5 h afterwards. Autoradiograms were prepared according to our thaw-mount technique and stained with antibodies to pituitary hormones. Thyrotropes showed strong and extensive nuclear concentration of radioactivity: about 90% of the immunostained thyrotropes were labeled. Lactotropes, somatotropes and gonadotropes showed no or only weak nuclear radioactivity: a subpopulation of 5%-10% of each of these immunostained cell types displayed nuclear labeling that was weak when compared to thyrotropes. Neural lobe pituicytes also showed weak to intermediate nuclear labeling. The results indicate a presence of nuclear receptors for 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 in pituitary cell types and suggest direct but differential genomic effects of 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 on pituitary hormone secretion. Evidence further suggests the existence of a vitamin D regulated brain-pituitary-thyroid axis.

1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D3 sites of action in the brain. An autoradiographic study

After injection of 3H 1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D3 to adult rats and mice, under normal or vitamin D deficient diet, the hormone was found to be accumulated in nuclei of neurons in certain brain regions. Nuclear concentration was prevented or diminished, when excess unlabeled 1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D3 was injected before 3H 1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D3, while excess 25 (OH) vitamin D3 did not prevent nuclear labeling. Highest nuclear concentration of 3H 1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D3 is observed in certain neurons in the nucleus interstitialis striae terminalis, involving its septo-preoptic pars dorsolateralis and its anterior hypothalamic-thalamic portion, and in the nucleus centralis of the amygdala, all constituting a system of target neurons linked by a component of the stria terminalis. Nuclear concentration of 3H 1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D3 is also found in neurons in the periventricular nucleus of the preoptic-hypothalamic region, including its extensions, the parvocellular paraventricular and arcuate nucleus, in the ventromedial nucleus, supramammillary nucleus, reticular nucleus of the thalamus, ventral hippocampus, caudate nucleus, pallium, in the midbrain-pontine central gray, dorsal raphe nucleus, parabrachial nuclei, cranial motor nuclei, substantia gelatinosa of the sensory nucleus of the trigeminus, Golgi type II cells of the cerebellum, and others. The extensive distribution of target neurons suggests that 1,25 (OH)2 vitamin D3 regulates the production of several aminergic and peptidergic messengers, and influences the activity of certain endocrine-autonomic, sensory and motor systems.