Further observations on the fine structure and development of the infracerebral complex ("infracerebral gland") of Nereis limnicola (Annelida, Polychaeta)

MorphoFeatures for unsupervised exploration of cell types, tissues, and organs in volume electron microscopy

Electron microscopy (EM) provides a uniquely detailed view of cellular morphology, including organelles and fine subcellular ultrastructure. While the acquisition and (semi-)automatic segmentation of multicellular EM volumes are now becoming routine, large-scale analysis remains severely limited by the lack of generally applicable pipelines for automatic extraction of comprehensive morphological descriptors. Here, we present a novel unsupervised method for learning cellular morphology features directly from 3D EM data: a neural network delivers a representation of cells by shape and ultrastructure. Applied to the full volume of an entire three-segmented worm of the annelid Platynereis dumerilii, it yields a visually consistent grouping of cells supported by specific gene expression profiles. Integration of features across spatial neighbours can retrieve tissues and organs, revealing, for example, a detailed organisation of the animal foregut. We envision that the unbiased nature of the proposed morphological descriptors will enable rapid exploration of very different biological questions in large EM volumes, greatly increasing the impact of these invaluable, but costly resources.

The chemical brain hypothesis for the origin of nervous systems

In nervous systems, there are two main modes of transmission for the propagation of activity between cells. Synaptic transmission relies on close contact at chemical or electrical synapses while volume transmission is mediated by diffusible chemical signals and does not require direct contact. It is possible to wire complex neuronal networks by both chemical and synaptic transmission. Both types of networks are ubiquitous in nervous systems, leading to the question which of the two appeared first in evolution. This paper explores a scenario where chemically organized cellular networks appeared before synapses in evolution, a possibility supported by the presence of complex peptidergic signalling in all animals except sponges. Small peptides are ideally suited to link up cells into chemical networks. They have unlimited diversity, high diffusivity and high copy numbers derived from repetitive precursors. But chemical signalling is diffusion limited and becomes inefficient in larger bodies. To overcome this, peptidergic cells may have developed projections and formed synaptically connected networks tiling body surfaces and displaying synchronized activity with pulsatile peptide release. The advent of circulatory systems and neurohemal organs further reduced the constraint imposed on chemical signalling by diffusion. This could have contributed to the explosive radiation of peptidergic signalling systems in stem bilaterians. Neurosecretory centres in extant nervous systems are still predominantly chemically wired and coexist with the synaptic brain. This article is part of the theme issue 'Basal cognition: multicellularity, neurons and the cognitive lens'.

Regeneration and endocrinology in the polychaetePlatynereis dumerilii : An experimental and structural study

1. In the polychaetePlatynereis dumerilii, the hormone-elaborating portion of the prostomium was determined by means of prostomium transection and implantation experiments. The area in question lies between the two pairs of eyes, extending longitudinally from the posterior border of the anterior eyes to about the posterior border of the posterior eyes. This corresponds approximately with the brain area delimited by the anterior and posterior dorsoventral connective tissue tubes and which is covered ventrally by the infracerebral gland epithelium. 2. The infracerebral gland-complex and neurosecretory neurons within the brain were envisaged as possible sites of hormone synthesis. 3. The infracerebral gland-complex inPl. dumerilii was investigated with light-and electron-microscopical techniques. A leaf-shaped area (measuring 120 by 95 μm at the most) of the pericapsular epithelium at the ventral side of the brain, adjacent to the main blood vessel and to its efferent branches, consists of specialized columnar epithelial cells. Numerousa-cells and scarceb-cells can be distinguished. Fibre tracts with glia fibres and axons (some being neurosecretory axons) descend from the neuropile and in part terminate with prominent end-structures at the inner face of the brain capsule in the gland region. Probably some axons penetrate the capsule and make contact with the gland cells. Neither structural nor experimental findings prove that the infracerebral gland synthesizes the brain hormone. Accessory functions are discussed. 4. Investigations in secretory brain cells ofPl. dumerilii are reported. In agreement with Müller (1973), a lack of correlation between the number of stainable neurosecretory neurons and the hormonal activity of the brain was found: in immature worms (to which high hormonal titers are ascribed) only few or even no neurosecretory brain cells at all were detectable. Prostomium transection and implantation experiments show further that not all regions of the brain which enclose neurosecretory neurons produce brain hormone. The results are discussed with reference to the hypotheses of Müller (1973) which suggest that the appearance of stainable neurosecretory brain cells indicates inactivation of neurons possibly previously involved with hormone synthesis.