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Santillo A, Chieffi Baccari G, Minucci S, Falvo S, Venditti M, Di Matteo L. The Harderian gland: Endocrine function and hormonal control. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2020; 297:113548. [PMID: 32679156 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2020.113548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The Harderian gland (HG) is an exocrine gland located within the eye socket in a variety of tetrapods. During the 1980s and 1990s the HG elicited great interest in the scientific community due to its morphological and functional complexity, and from a phylogenetic point of view. A comparative approach has contributed to a better understanding of its physiology. Whereas the chemical nature of its secretions (mucous, serous or lipids) varies between different groups of tetrapods, the lipids represent the more common component among different species. Indeed, besides being an accessory to lubricate the nictitating membrane, the lipids may have a pheromonal function. Porphyrins and melatonin secretion is a feature of the rodent HG. The porphyrins, being phototransducers, could modulate HG melatonin production. The melatonin synthesis suggests an involvement of the HG in the retinal-pineal axis. Finally, StAR protein and steroidogenic enzyme activities in the rat HG suggests that the gland contributes to steroid hormone synthesis. Over the past twenty years, much has become known on the hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) HG, unique among rodents in displaying a remarkable sexual dimorphism concerning the contents of porphyrins and melatonin. Mainly for this reason, the hamster HG has been used as a model to compare, under normal conditions, the physiological oxidative stress between females (strong) and males (moderate). Androgens are responsible for the sexual dimorphism in hamster and they are known to control the HG secretory activity in different species. Furthermore, HG is a target of pituitary, pineal and thyroid hormones. This review offers a comparative panorama of the endocrine activity of the HG as well as the hormonal control of its secretory activity, with a particular emphasis on the sex dimorphic aspects of the hamster HG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Santillo
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi della Campania 'Luigi Vanvitelli', Via Vivaldi, 43-81100 Caserta, Italy.
| | - Gabriella Chieffi Baccari
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi della Campania 'Luigi Vanvitelli', Via Vivaldi, 43-81100 Caserta, Italy
| | - Sergio Minucci
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sez. Fisiologia Umana e Funzioni Biologiche Integrate, Università degli Studi della Campania 'Luigi Vanvitelli', via Santa Maria di Costantinopoli, 16-80138 Napoli, Italy
| | - Sara Falvo
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi della Campania 'Luigi Vanvitelli', Via Vivaldi, 43-81100 Caserta, Italy
| | - Massimo Venditti
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sez. Fisiologia Umana e Funzioni Biologiche Integrate, Università degli Studi della Campania 'Luigi Vanvitelli', via Santa Maria di Costantinopoli, 16-80138 Napoli, Italy
| | - Loredana Di Matteo
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sez. Fisiologia Umana e Funzioni Biologiche Integrate, Università degli Studi della Campania 'Luigi Vanvitelli', via Santa Maria di Costantinopoli, 16-80138 Napoli, Italy
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García-Macia M, Santos-Ledo A, Caballero B, Rubio-González A, de Luxán-Delgado B, Potes Y, Rodríguez-González SM, Boga JA, Coto-Montes A. Selective autophagy, lipophagy and mitophagy, in the Harderian gland along the oestrous cycle: a potential retrieval effect of melatonin. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18597. [PMID: 31819084 PMCID: PMC6901547 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54743-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexual dimorphism has been reported in many processes. However, sexual bias in favour of the use of males is very present in science. One of the main reasons is that the impact of hormones in diverse pathways and processes such as autophagy have not been properly addressed in vivo. The Harderian gland is a perfect model to study autophagic modulation as it exhibits important changes during the oestrous cycle. The aim of this study is to identify the main processes behind Harderian gland differences under oestrous cycle and their modulator. In the present study we show that redox-sensitive transcription factors have an essential role: NF-κB may activate SQSTM1/p62 in oestrus, promoting selective types of autophagy: mitophagy and lipophagy. Nrf2 activation in dioestrus, leads the retrieval phase and restoration of mitochondrial homeostasis. Melatonin’s receptors show higher expression in dioestrus, leading to decreases in pro-inflammatory mediators and enhanced Nrf2 expression. Consequently, autophagy is blocked, and porphyrin release is reduced. All these results point to melatonin as one of the main modulators of the changes in autophagy during the oestrous cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina García-Macia
- Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, William Leech Building, NE2 4HH, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK. .,Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Salamanca (IBSAL), Neuroenergetics and Metabolism Group, Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics, University of Salamanca-CSIC, Zacarias Gonzalez, 2, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.
| | - Adrián Santos-Ledo
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life Central Parkway, NE1 3BZ, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Beatriz Caballero
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Área de Biología Celular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Oviedo, Julián Clavería s/n, 33006, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Adrian Rubio-González
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Área de Biología Celular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Oviedo, Julián Clavería s/n, 33006, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Beatriz de Luxán-Delgado
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Área de Biología Celular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Oviedo, Julián Clavería s/n, 33006, Oviedo, Spain.,Barts Cancer Institute-Queen Mary, University of London, Centre for Tumour biology, John Vane Science Centre, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - Yaiza Potes
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Área de Biología Celular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Oviedo, Julián Clavería s/n, 33006, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Susana Mª Rodríguez-González
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Área de Biología Celular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Oviedo, Julián Clavería s/n, 33006, Oviedo, Spain
| | - José Antonio Boga
- Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Avenida de Roma s/n., 33011, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Ana Coto-Montes
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Área de Biología Celular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Oviedo, Julián Clavería s/n, 33006, Oviedo, Spain.
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García-Macia M, Rubio-Gonzalez A, de Luxán-Delgado B, Potes Y, Rodríguez-González S, de Gonzalo-Calvo D, Boga JA, Coto-Montes A. Autophagic and proteolytic processes in the Harderian gland are modulated during the estrous cycle. Histochem Cell Biol 2013; 141:519-29. [PMID: 24310659 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-013-1170-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The Syrian hamster Harderian gland (HG) is an organ that undergoes physiological autophagy in response to oxidative stress induced by porphyrin production. Porphyrin production in the HG has marked sex differences and is closely linked to reproductive function. In the present study, we observed that the estrous cycle and associated estrogen variations may affect oxidative-stress-induced proteolytic processes. In particular, significant changes in autophagic activity were detected during the estrous cycle. Notably, increased activation of macroautophagy as well as chaperone-mediated autophagy in the estrus phase coincided with a minimal antioxidant capability and the highest protein damage levels. By contrast, autophagic machinery was found to be blocked in the diestrus phase, likely due to mammalian target of rapamycin activation, which could be corroborated by the subsequent pS6K activation. Analogous results were observed regarding proteasome activity, which also showed maximal activity in the estrus phase. Interestingly, all these mechanisms were associated with important morphological changes in the HG during the estrous cycle. We observed statistically significant increases in Type II cells, which may be related to extensive autophagy in the estrus phase. Physiologically, this would result in a significant release of porphyrins specifically when females are more receptive. These data support the role of porphyrins as pheromones, as other authors have previously suggested, thus making the HG a scent organ. In addition, these results suggest a porphyrin-based approach to the treatment of porphyria during pregnancy, a condition for which no treatment is currently known.
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Affiliation(s)
- M García-Macia
- Department of Morphology and Cellular Biology, Cellular Biology Area, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Julián Clavería s/n, 33006, Oviedo, Spain,
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Santillo A, Monteforte R, De Lange P, Lanni A, Farina P, Baccari GC. Dimorphic expression of uncoupling protein-3 in golden hamster harderian gland: Effects of castration and testosterone administration. J Cell Physiol 2008; 215:481-7. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Tomás-Zapico C, Caballero B, Sierra V, Vega-Naredo I, Alvarez-García O, Tolivia D, Rodríguez-Colunga MJ, Coto-Montes A. Survival mechanisms in a physiological oxidative stress model. FASEB J 2005; 19:2066-8. [PMID: 16186173 DOI: 10.1096/fj.04-3595fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The Syrian hamster Harderian gland has as the remarkable feature of an extraordinary rate of porphyrin production, even higher than the liver. The low activity of the last enzyme of the route gives rise to the accumulation of the uncomplex porphyrins in the female glands. Moreover, due to the localization of the Harderian gland, porphyrins exposed to light produce reactive oxygen species and, thus, the gland presents a physiological oxidative stress, with a great number of sings of degeneration, but without compromising the gland integrity. The appearance of abnormal features in this gland was largely described in the past, but the significance is interpreted for the first time in this study. We have found that autophagic processes are the first result of an elevated porphyrin metabolism, as it is observed in both sexes. This mechanism is considered, in this case, as a constant renovation system that allows the normal gland activity to be sustained. Furthermore, there is a second procedure, invasive processes toward connective tissue, which even occasionally reach blood vessels with intravasation of damaged gland components into the bloodstream. This effect is a consequence of a strong oxidative stress environment that is mainly observed in the female gland, resembling to tumoral progression. Both mechanisms, autophagy and invasive processes, have to be implied in the maintenance of the gland integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Tomás-Zapico
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
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Tomás-Zapico C, Coto-Montes A, Martínez-Fraga J, Rodríguez-Colunga MJ, Tolivia D. Effects of continuous light exposure on antioxidant enzymes, porphyric enzymes and cellular damage in the Harderian gland of the Syrian hamster. J Pineal Res 2003; 34:60-8. [PMID: 12485373 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-079x.2003.02951.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The Syrian hamster Harderian gland (HG), an organ present in the male two secretory cell types (type-I and type-II cells), is physiologically exposed to high oxidative stress because of high concentrations of porphyrins and their precursor, 5-aminolevulinic acid. Because of its juxtaorbital location, the HG is accessible to light, and subject to phototoxic effects of these substances. After having previously demonstrated circadian rhythms in antioxidant enzymes, porphyric enzymes and oxidative damage of proteins and lipids, as well as influences of melatonin on these parameters, we have now studied the effects of continuous light (LL), which suppresses melatonin secretion by the pineal gland. Measurements were performed in two different circadian phases, in order to detect the presence or absence of day/night differences. In LL, no differences between circadian phases of subjective day and subjective night were demonstrable for 5-aminolevulinate synthase, 5-aminolevulinate dehydratase, porphobilinogen deaminase, or superoxide dismutase; temporal differences in glutathione reductase and catalase were markedly diminished, whereas all these parameters showed marked day/night differences in the rats exposed to a light/dark cycle of 14:10. In LL, oxidative damage to lipids was minimally effected, while protein damage was enhanced. LL also caused a reduction in the percentage of type-II cells. Therefore, cell differentiation in the HG does not seem to be controlled only by the androgen, but, unexpectedly, also by melatonin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Tomás-Zapico
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
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Coto-Montes A, Tomás-Zapico C, Rodríguez-Colunga MJ, Tolivia-Cadrecha D, Martínez-Fraga J, Hardeland R, Tolivia D. Effects of the circadian mutation 'tau' on the Harderian glands of Syrian hamsters. J Cell Biochem 2001; 83:426-34. [PMID: 11596111 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.1240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The Syrian hamster Harderian gland (HG) is an organ continually exposed to oxidative stress caused by high concentrations of porphyric metabolites. According to previous studies, melatonin, which is rhythmically secreted by the pineal gland and tonically produced by the HG, antagonizes the oxidative damage. HGs exhibit a strong gender-dependent correlation between porphyrins, melatonin, and histological appearance. In HGs of both sexes, we have investigated effects of a single gene defect in the circadian clock system (tau mutation) causing a shortened free-running period and an advanced maximum of circulating melatonin. Comparisons were made with wild-type animals, one group of which received daily pharmacological injections of melatonin in late photophase. Changes were observed in histological characteristics, porphyrin content, antioxidant enzyme activities, and damage of proteins and lipids. HGs of tau hamsters showed morphological changes which can be partially interpreted in terms of increased damage. Additionally, tau females exhibited a many-fold augmentation in the percentage of so-called type II cells, which are otherwise typical for the male glands. In tau hamsters of both sexes, major antioxidative enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase, glutathione reductase, and catalase) were markedly enhanced, a presumably compensatory response to increased oxidative stress. Higher oxidative damage in tau HGs was directly demonstrable by a many-fold increase in protein carbonyl. Rises in antioxidative enzymes were also observed upon injections of melatonin; this was, however, not accompanied by changes in protein carbonyl, so that enzyme inductions by the hormone should be understood as protective actions. Our data are not only in accordance with findings on protective effects by melatonin, but also with our earlier observation made in Drosophila that perturbations in the circadian system lead to increased oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Coto-Montes
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Universidad de Oviedo, E-33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain.
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Coto-Montes A, Boga JA, Tomás-Zapico C, Rodríguez-Colunga MJ, Martínez-Fraga J, Tolivia-Cadrecha D, Menéndez G, Hardeland R, Tolivia D. Physiological oxidative stress model: Syrian hamster Harderian gland-sex differences in antioxidant enzymes. Free Radic Biol Med 2001; 30:785-92. [PMID: 11275478 DOI: 10.1016/s0891-5849(01)00468-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The Syrian hamster Harderian gland, a juxtaorbital organ exhibiting marked gender-associated differences in contents of porphyrins and melatonin, was used as a model system for comparing strong (in females) and moderate (in males) physiological oxidative stress. Histological differences showing much higher cell damage in females were studied in conjunction with lipid peroxidation and activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase. Lipid peroxidation and enzyme activities were measured throughout the circadian cycle, revealing the importance of dynamical processes in oxidative stress. Especially in lipid peroxidation and in catalase, short-lasting rises exhibited strongest gender differences. Peaks of lipid peroxidation were about three times higher in females, compared to males. Catalase peaks of females exceeded those in males by several hundred-fold. Average levels of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase were about three or two times higher in females, respectively. A clear-cut diurnally peaking rhythm was found in glutathione peroxidase of females, which was not apparent in males. Glutathione reductase showed differences in time patterns, but less in average activities. The time courses of lipid peroxidation and of protective enzymes are not explained by circulating melatonin, whereas melatonin formed in the Harderian gland should contribute to differences in average levels. Neither damage nor antioxidative defense simply reflect the illumination cycle and are, therefore, not only a consequence of photoreactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Coto-Montes
- Department of Morphology and Cellular Biology, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Asturias, Spain.
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Domínguez P, Antolín I, Prieto F, Menéndez-Peláez A. Isolation and identification of sex-specific cDNA clones from the Syrian hamster harderian gland. Microsc Res Tech 1996; 34:111-7. [PMID: 8722704 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0029(19960601)34:2<111::aid-jemt3>3.0.co;2-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Syrian hamster Harderian glands show a typical sexual dimorphism, with males having two secretory cell types and females having one cell type and intraluminal porphyrin accretions, among other differences. Since these differences may be due to the expression of specific genes, our interest is to identify those genes and their role on the development and control of the sexual dimorphism. The experimental approach was to construct cDNA libraries for male and female Syrian hamster Harderian glands and then subtracted libraries for male vs. female and for female vs. male. By this method, cDNA libraries enriched either in male-specific or in female-specific clones were obtained. Clones from those libraries were checked for differential expression by using double colony hybridization with [32P]-cDNA from male and female glands. Then, the selected clones were checked again for expression in Harderian glands by Northern hybridization, using poly(A+) RNA from males, castrated males, and females. Finally, the clones were sequenced and compared to search for significant homologies. One of the male-specific clones showed strong homology with rat cytochrome p450b/e. Among the female-specific clones, homologies were found to the complement C3 fragment from several species, to sequences from the mouse mammary tumor virus, and to the subunits C1 and C2 of the rat prostatic steroid binding protein. Several other clones showed no significant homologies and need further characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Domínguez
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicinia, Universidad de Oviedo, Spain
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Abstract
The mammalian Harderian glands are lipid-secreting glands. In an unstimulated condition, the glandular cells frequently exocytose the lipid materials; however, no intracellular calcium ion ([Ca2+]c) changes are detectable. Cholinergic (muscarinic) secretagogues induce secretory activity and increase of [Ca2+]c. A G-protein activator, sodium fluoride, enhances the secretory activity and increase of [Ca2+]c. Removal of extracellular calcium ions inhibits the secretion enhanced by cholinergic stimulation. Under pharmacologic stimulation, glandular cells may show an apocrine-like secretory pattern. Cholinergic stimulation also induces contraction of the myoepithelial cells covering glandular end pieces; however, the reduction in volume of glandular end pieces is not prominent. Catecholamines have no effect on the release of lipid materials. These results indicate the involvement of G-proteins linking with muscarinic receptors and Ca2+ dynamics (increase of [Ca2+]c and Ca2+ influx) in lipid secretion by glandular cells and in contraction of myoepithelial cells of mammalian Harderian glands. However, the increase of [Ca2+]c in Harderian glands was less when compared with other cells--for instance, those which secrete protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Satoh
- Department of Molecular Physiology, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, Japan
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Rodriguez C, Kotler M, Antolin I, Sainz RM, Menendez-Pelaez A. Regulation of the aminolevulinate synthase gene in the Syrian hamster Harderian gland: changes during development and circadian rhythm and role of some hormones. Microsc Res Tech 1996; 34:65-70. [PMID: 8859889 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0029(19960501)34:1<65::aid-jemt9>3.0.co;2-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The Syrian hamster Harderian gland has been advocated as a model to study the porphyrin biosynthetic pathway, since it shows by far the highest porphyrin concentration known to date. Another particular characteristic is the sexual dimorphism at both the morphological and the biochemical levels. We found a variation in the ALV-S (aminolevulinate synthase) gene expression according to sex, with females exhibiting much higher mRNA levels than do males. After castration, ALV-S mRNA rose considerably in males, this increase being inhibited by darkness or treatment with melatonin. Treatment with hCG or progesterone did not vary the ALV-S mRNA levels in females. Castrated males, however, showed a much larger increase when they were treated with hCG. No variations have been found in the expression of the ALV-S gene in female HG throughout the estrous cycle. During development, males and females showed similar ALV-S mRNA levels until they were 20 days old. Afterwards, they started showing gender-associated differences. In females, ALV-S mRNA levels rose during the first 3 months of life, and thereafter they decreased progressively with aging. A circadian rhythm has been found in the gene expression of ALV-S mRNA in females, showing very low levels in the morning and reaching a peak during the first hours of darkness. It was an endogenous rhythm, probably regulated at the transcriptional level. It is proposed that the light-dark period duration modulates this rhythm through the suprachiasmatic nucleus which in turn acts on the pineal secretion of melatonin that regulates ALV-S gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Rodriguez
- Departamento de Morfologia y Biologia Celular, Universidad de Oviedo, Spain
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Lopez JM, Carbajo-Perez E, Fernandez-Suarez A, Alvarez-Uria M. Postnatal development of cell types in the hamster Harderian gland. Microsc Res Tech 1996; 34:48-54. [PMID: 8859887 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0029(19960501)34:1<48::aid-jemt7>3.0.co;2-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The morphology, frequency, and distribution of mitotic cells in the epithelium of the Harderian gland was studied in the male and female hamster from birth to the ninetieth day of postnatal life using light and electron microscopic techniques. The results obtained show that there is a gradual decline in the mitotic activity of the Harderian gland as the animals become older which continues until sexual maturity is reached. The study did not find any morphological evidence for the existence of separate precursor cells for the different secretory cell types of the gland. Secretory cells seem to be a homogeneous population in the glands of hamsters younger than 20 days. Cells that could be interpreted as undifferentiated stem cells were not observed. Mitotic cells were observed randomly distributed within tubulo-alveoli, similar to those in interphase. The first sex differences were observed at day 20, when type II cells appeared in male glands. From this point, the percentage of type II cells rapidly increased in male glands. This increase was not accompanied by an increase in the global mitotic activity. However, at this age, male type II cells develop an intense mitotic activity. The observations obtained are in accordance with the hypothesis that the type I and type II cells have the same cell precursor.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Lopez
- Departamento de Morfologia y Biologia Celular, Universidad de Oviedo, Spain
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Chieffi G, Baccari GC, Di Matteo L, d'Istria M, Minucci S, Varriale B. Cell biology of the harderian gland. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CYTOLOGY 1996; 168:1-80. [PMID: 8843648 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7696(08)60882-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The harderian gland is an orbital gland of the majority of land vertebrates. It is the only orbital gland in anuran amphibians since the lacrimal gland develops later during phylogenesis in some reptilian species. Perhaps because it is not found in man, little interest was paid to this gland until about four decades ago. In recent years, however, the scientific community has shown new interest in analyzing the ontogenetic and morphofunctional aspects of the harderian gland, particularly in rodents, which are the preferred experimental model for physiologists and pathologists. One of the main characteristics of the gland is the extreme variety not only in its morphology, but also in its biochemical properties. This most likely reflects the versatility of functions related to different adaptations of the species considered. The complexity of the harderian gland is further shown in its control by many exogenous and endogenous factors, which vary from species to species. The information gained so far points to the following functions for the gland: (1) lubrication of the eye and nictitating membrane, (2) a site of immune response, particularly in birds, (3) a source of pheromones, (4) a source of saliva in some chelonians, (5) osmoregulation in some reptiles, (6) photoreception in rodents, (7) thermoregulation in some rodents, and (8) a source of growth factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Chieffi
- Dipartimento di Fisiologia Umana e Funzioni Biologiche Integrate Filippo Bottazzi, Seconda Università di Napoli, Naples, Italy
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Domínguez P, Antolín I, Boga JA, Uría H, Menéndez-Peláez A. Androgen regulation of gene expression in the Syrian hamster Harderian gland. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1994; 106:81-9. [PMID: 7895917 DOI: 10.1016/0303-7207(94)90189-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The androgenic control of sexual dimorphism has been studied in the Harderian gland from Syrian hamster and compared to rat Harderian gland, a system without dimorphism. Hybridization in situ with a rat cDNA clone has revealed the presence of androgen receptor mRNA in all secretory cells from male and female hamster glands. Testosterone or 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone administration to females both caused a 60% decrease in the levels of 5-aminolevulinate synthase mRNA after 1 day of treatment, but the resulting patterns of in vitro translation using RNA from glands treated with the two androgens are different. Testosterone alters the mRNA levels for androgen receptor and 5-aminolevulinate synthase in the glands only 6 h after its implantation in females, and the action is maintained up to 10 days of treatment. Finally, androgen administration to females or deprivation in males alter androgen receptor but not 5-aminolevulinate synthase mRNA levels in rat Harderian glands. Our results suggest that the androgen receptor from Harderian glands is responsible for the sexual dimorphism found in Syrian hamsters, whereas the lack of sexual dimorphism in rat seems to be due to a restricted effect of androgens in the glands.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Domínguez
- Departamento de Biología Funcional, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
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16
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Antolín I, Uría H, Tolivia D, Rodríguez-Colunga MJ, Rodríguez C, Kotler ML, Menéndez-Peláez A. Porphyrin accumulation in the harderian glands of female Syrian hamster results in mitochondrial damage and cell death. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 1994; 239:349-59. [PMID: 7978359 DOI: 10.1002/ar.1092390402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Harderian glands of female Syrian hamsters contain very high concentrations of protoporphyrin (in the range of micrograms per mg of tissue) which accumulate in the tubulo-alveoli of the gland. We have studied the process of synthesis, accumulation, and secretion of this cyclic compound by the secretory cells of the hamster Harderian glands. METHODS The animals used were female Syrian hamster of 15, 35, 75, 180, and 360 days of age. Items first examined were (1) percentage of the "clear cells," (2) area occupied by intraluminal porphyrins, and (3) histological characteristics of "clear cells" by light and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). In a second study the total content of porphyrins was determined. Finally, the levels of mRNA for the enzyme aminolevulinate synthase (ALV-S) were measured. RESULTS In the glands of female hamsters, both the tissue concentration and the intraluminal area occupied by protoporphyrin correlate with the appearance of a special type of cell (clear cells) which show signs of cell degeneration. In addition, the expression of the gene for ALV-S, which is the limiting enzyme in porphyrin production, also parallels the relative number of clear cells. Analyzed under TEM, these clear cells display dilated mitochondria and short and swollen endoplasmic reticulum cisternae. In a late phase of necrosis, the nuclear envelope appears disorganized with scarce chromatin. The mitochondria undergo complete destruction, resulting in electron-dense bacillary formations which progressively coalesce in large and dense areas of protoporphyrin. The cell dies after this accumulation, being secreted by a "cytogen" mechanism. CONCLUSIONS In view of our results, the Harderian gland of female Syrian hamster may provide a useful model for the study of the mechanism by which the anomalous accumulation of protoporphyrin induces cell damage in human protoporphyria.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Antolín
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Universidad de Oviedo, Spain
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17
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Coto-Montes AM, Rodríguez-Colunga MJ, Uría H, Antolin I, Tolivia D, Buzzell GR, Menéndez-Peláez A. Photoperiod and the pineal gland regulate the male phenotype of the Harderian glands of male Syrian hamsters after androgen withdrawal. J Pineal Res 1994; 17:48-54. [PMID: 7853144 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-079x.1994.tb00113.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The Harderian glands of Syrian hamsters exhibit a marked sexual dimorphism in cell types and porphyrin production. The glands of male hamsters have two secretory cell types (Type I and II) while the glands of females consist of a single secretory cell type (female Type I) and large intraluminal deposits of porphyrins. Besides androgens, there is evidence that the pineal gland, through the secretion of melatonin, contributes to the maintenance of the "male" and "female" phenotypes. In this study, we investigated the effects of castration, short photoperiods, and pinealectomy on the distribution of secretory cells and porphyrin deposits in the Harderian glands of male Syrian hamsters. Two groups of animals were maintained in long days (14 hr light/day). Hamsters in one group were left intact and those in the other were castrated. Another three groups were maintained in short days (8 hr light/day); these animals were either left intact, castrated, or both castrated and pinealectomized. The duration of the experiment was 5 weeks. Castration of long photoperiod-exposed animals resulted in a significant drop in the number of Type II cells and a large increase in the porphyrin deposits (P < 0.01). However, castrated animals exposed to short photoperiod showed a significant smaller change in both parameters compared with those exposed to long days (P < 0.05). Pinealectomy prevented the effects of short days in castrated animals. No significant changes were observed in the relative number of mitotic figures or in the number of cell nuclei, indicating that the changes observed were due in part to a transformation of Type II into Type I cells. In a second experiment, male hamsters were injected daily either with 25 micrograms of melatonin late in the afternoon or with the saline for 8 weeks. The administration of melatonin resulted in a significant (P < 0.05) increase in the percentage of Type II cells. We conclude that when circulating androgens are very low or absent, pineal melatonin maintains the male phenotype in the Syrian hamster Harderian gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Coto-Montes
- Departamento de Morfología y Biología Celular, Universidad de Oviedo, Spain
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