Dual role of glucuronyl- and sulfotransferases converting xenobiotics into reactive or biologically inactive and easily excretable compounds

The development and prevalidation of an in vitro mutagenicity assay based on MutaMouse primary hepatocytes, Part I: Isolation, structural, genetic, and biochemical characterization

To develop an improved in vitro mammalian cell gene mutation assay, it is imperative to address the known deficiencies associated with existing assays. Primary hepatocytes isolated from the MutaMouse are ideal for an in vitro gene mutation assay due to their metabolic competence, their "normal" karyotype (i.e., neither transformed nor immortalized), and the presence of the MutaMouse transgene for rapid and reliable mutation scoring. The cells were extensively characterized to confirm their utility. Freshly isolated cells were found to have a hepatocyte-like morphology, predominantly consisting of binucleated cells. These cells maintain hepatocyte-specific markers for up to 3 days in culture. Analyses revealed a normal murine hepatocyte karyotype with a modal ploidy number of 4n. Fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis confirmed the presence of the lambda shuttle vector on chromosome 3. The doubling time was determined to be 22.5 ± 3.3 h. Gene expression and enzymatic activity of key Phase I and Phase II metabolic enzymes were maintained for at least 8 and 24 h in culture, respectively. Exposure to β-naphthoflavone led to approximately 900- and 9-fold increases in Cyp1a1 and Cyp1a2 gene expression, respectively, and approximately twofold induction in cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1/1A2 activity. Exposure to phenobarbital resulted in an approximately twofold increase in CYP 2B6 enzyme activity. Following this characterization, it is evident that MutaMouse primary hepatocytes have considerable promise for in vitro mutagenicity assessment. The performance of these cells in an in vitro gene mutation assay is assessed in Part II. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 60:331-347, 2019. © 2018 The Authors. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Environmental Mutagen Society.

Liver slices in dynamic organ culture. I. An alternative in vitro technique for the study of rat hepatic drug metabolism

1. Precision-cut liver slices in dynamic organ culture, a novel in vitro technique, is described and applied to the study of hepatic drug metabolism in the rat. 2. These slices catalysed the oxidative O-deethylation of the substrate, 7-ethoxycoumarin, over 6 h incubation. In addition, the direct conjugation of 7-hydroxycoumarin with either sulphate or glucuronic acid was maintained over 6 h. 3. The formation of 7-hydroxycoumarin and the presence of the sulphate and glucuronide conjugates in slices exposed to 7-ethoxycoumarin demonstrated integrated phase I and phase II drug metabolizing activities in this system. 4. Minor modifications of the incubation system allowed for the metabolism of four volatile chlorinated benzenes: monochlorobenzene 1,2-, 1,3-, and 1,4-dichlorobenzenes to aqueous soluble metabolites. 5. The use of liver slices in dynamic organ culture as an alternative preparation for the study of xenobiotic metabolism is discussed.

Localization, distribution, and induction of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes and aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase activity within lung

The metabolism of xenobiotics within lung often leads to toxicity, although certain pulmonary cells are more readily damaged than others. This differential susceptibility can result from cell-specific differences in xenobiotic activation and detoxication. The localization and distribution of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes (cytochromes P-450, NADPH-cytochrome P-450 reductase, epoxide hydrolase, glutathione S-transferases, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, and a sulfotransferase) and of aryl hydrocarbon (benzo[a]pyrene) hydroxylase activity determined immunohistochemically and histochemically, respectively, within lung are discussed. Findings reveal that xenobiotics can be metabolized in situ, albeit to different extents, by bronchial epithelial cells, Clara and ciliated bronchiolar epithelial cells, and type II pneumocytes and other alveolar wall cells and that enzymes and activities are not necessarily induced uniformly among these cells.

Comparative aspects of hepatic UDP-glucuronosyltransferases and glutathione S-transferases in bluegill and channel catfish

1. Microsomal UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UDPGTs) and cytosolic glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) were examined in bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus R.) and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus R.) liver. 2. Hepatic UDPGT activity was of a similar magnitude in both species and was markedly increased by the addition of 0.05-0.2% Triton X-100, however, optimal estimates of activity were obtained when 0.1% detergent was used. 3. Both species exhibited hepatic GST activity toward several structurally dissimilar substrates, suggesting the presence of multiple GSTs. GST activity ranged over three orders of magnitude, depending upon substrate, and was approx. 3-fold higher in the channel catfish than in the bluegill.

Single dose oxazepam has no effect on acetaminophen clearance or metabolism

The metabolism of acetaminophen and oxazepam in humans is mainly dependent on the microsomal capacity for glucuronide conjugation. The clearance of acetaminophen and the formation of metabolites were evaluated in 7 patients before and during concomitant administration of oxazepam 30 mg. The subjects received a single 500 mg dose of acetaminophen i.v. and concentrations in plasma were measured for 360 minutes and in urine for 24 h in order to estimate the production of metabolites. The single therapeutic dose of oxazepam had no effect on the clearance of acetaminophen or on formation of its metabolites.

Factors influencing sulfation in isolated rat hepatocytes

Sulfation of harmol by isolated hepatocytes was dependent on an exogenous source of sulfate. Inorganic sulfate ion stimulated sulfation by over ten fold. Analysis of the stimulation of harmol sulfation by sulfate indicated a Km of 239 microM and a Vmax of 1.1 mumoles harmol sulfate/min/10(6) cells. Cysteine also stimulated the rate of harmol sulfation but was less effective than sulfate ion. Lithium chloride inhibited harmol sulfation. Sulfation was unaffected by several metabolic alterations which inhibited harmol glucuronidation. Fasting for 24 hours, and incubation with ethanol or linoleic acid, did not influence the rate of sulfation but inhibited glucuronidation by 50 percent.

Oxazepam pharmacokinetics in thyroid disease

The pharmacokinetics of oxazepam, a drug mainly eliminated by a single step glucuronidation reaction, were studied in seven hyperthyroid and six hypothyroid patients before and after treatment. Oxazepam elimination half-life was shorter and apparent oral clearance higher in untreated hyperthyroid patients than after treatment. There was no significant change in oxazepam elimination in hypothyroid subjects. Time to peak concentration (tmax) was reduced in the hyperthyroid state. Hypothyroidism had no significant effect on tmax. Serum bilirubin concentration was lower in the patients while hyperthyroid before treatment than when euthyroid and also lower than in the hypothyroid patients. There was no significant correlation between serum bilirubin concentrations and oxazepam elimination. These results suggest that glucuronyl transferase activity is increased in hyperthyroidism but is not altered in most patients with hypothyroidism. The extent of increase in glucuronyl transferase activity is similar to that produced by enzyme inducing drugs.

Species differences, influence of dose and application on biotransformation of phenol in fish

1. The metabolism of phenol in goldfish (Carassius auratus), rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) and goldenorfe ide (Leuciscus ideus melanotus) was compared. All three species produced phenyl sulphate, quinol sulphate and phenyl glucuronide. 2. The dose dependence of metabolism of phenol in goldfish was investigated. When the concn. of phenol was increased from 0.2 to 2 mg/l medium, that glucuronylated increased from 7 to 16% and that sulphated decreased from 63 to 47%. 3. The influence of mode of exposure on metabolism of phenol in goldfish was examined. Dietary exposure and uptake from medium was compared with i.p. injection. There was less metabolism in the order: dietary exposure greater than uptake from medium greater than injection.

Increases in cytochrome p-450 in cultured hepatocytes mediated by 3- and 4-carbon alcohols

The amount of cytochrome P-450 was increased to different extents after treatment of cultured chick embryo hepatocytes with n-propanol, isopropanol, n-butanol, or isobutanol. These increases were associated with increases in benzphetamine demethylase activity, a cytochrome P-450-catalyzed oxidation, and glucuronidation of phenol red, catalyzed by UDP-glucuronyl transferase. The responses were similar to those obtained with ethanol or propylisopropylacetamide, which the phenobarbital-like inducers. Pretreatment of cells with cycloheximide prevented the increases in both cytochrome P-450 and glucuronidation of phenol red, indicating that protein synthesis was required for these responses.

Determination of hepatic uridine 5'-diphosphoglucuronic acid concentration by conjugation with diethylstilbestrol

A sensitive and reliable assay for uridine 5'-diphosphoglucuronic acid (UDPGA) was developed that involved conjugation of diethylstilbestrol (DES) in vitro. This conjugation reaction is solely dependent upon UDPGA concentration. The assay uses 0.13 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, 6.7 mM MgCl2, 0.05% Brig 58, 0.25 mg guinea pig liver microsomal protein, 0.13 mM 3H-DES (0.2 microCi/ml), and 200 microliters of boiled 10% liver homogenate in a total volume of 0.5 ml. After a 60-min incubation at 37 degrees C, unconjugated DES is extracted into 5 ml of chloroform and the residual metabolized 3H-DES in the aqueous phase is determined by liquid scintillation spectrometry. After addition of beta-glucuronidase to the aqueous phase, about 90% of the radioactivity could be extracted into chloroform, demonstrating the DES-glucuronic acid is the primary metabolite. Thus, this method easily permits quantitation of UDPGA in rat liver in the 1-10 nmol range.

Differences in the response of hepatic and intestinal drug metabolizing enzymes in rats following carbon tetrachloride and/or phenobarbital treatment

The activities of the microsomal drug metabolizing enzymes in the liver and intestinal mucosa of rats were studied after the intraperitoneal administration of carbon tetrachloride and/or subcutaneous phenobarbital administration. The membrane phospholipid content was decreased after carbon tetrachloride treatment indicating destruction in the membrane structure. Aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase activity was decreased in the liver and intestinal mucosa after treatment with CCl4 alone and in combination with phenobarbital. The CCl4 treatment increased the intestinal epoxide hydratase activity but decreased the activity in the liver. The hepatic UDPglucuronosyltransferase was slightly induced by phenobarbital and the activity was elevated by the CCl4 treatment. In the intestinal mucosa the enhanced UDPglucuronosyltransferase activity was observed only after phenobarbital pretreatment and the activity was decreased by CCl4. These results support the view that epoxide hydratase and UDPglucuronosyltransferase enzymes occupy different locations in the endosplasmic reticulum of intestinal mucosa than of liver.