1
|
Schreidah CM, Ratnayake K, Senarath K, Karunarathne A. Microcystins: Biogenesis, Toxicity, Analysis, and Control. Chem Res Toxicol 2020; 33:2225-2246. [PMID: 32614166 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Microcystins are cyclic peptide toxins formed by cyanobacteria. These toxins are recognized for their association with algal blooms, posing a significant threat to ecosystems and drinking water quality. Due to the growing environmental concerns they raise, a comprehensive review on microcystins' genesis, toxicity, and analytical methods for their quantitative determination is outlined. Genes, including the mcyABC cluster, regulate microcystin biogenesis. Bioanalytical experiments have identified key environmental factors, such as temperature and nitrogen availability, that promote microcystin production. Microcystin toxicity is explored based on its modulatory effects on protein phosphatases 1 and 2A in specific tissues and organs. Additionally, biochemical mechanisms of chelation, transportation, resultant oxidative stress, and tumor promotion abilities of microcystins are also discussed. Various analytical methods to separate, detect, and quantify microcystins, including the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and chromatographic platforms-linked tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS) for unequivocal structural identification, are also reviewed. Since control of microcystins in water is of great necessity, both water treatment and mechanisms of abiotic transformation and microbial degradation are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Celine M Schreidah
- Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
| | - Kasun Ratnayake
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
| | - Kanishka Senarath
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Colombo, Colombo 00300, Sri Lanka
| | - Ajith Karunarathne
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Boevé JL, Rozenberg R, Shinohara A, Schmidt S. Toxic peptides occur frequently in pergid and argid sawfly larvae. PLoS One 2014; 9:e105301. [PMID: 25121515 PMCID: PMC4133368 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0105301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxic peptides containing D-amino acids are reported from the larvae of sawfly species. The compounds are suspected to constitute environmental contaminants, as they have killed livestock grazing in areas with congregations of such larvae, and related larval extracts are deleterious to ants. Previously, two octapeptides (both called lophyrotomin) and three heptapeptides (pergidin, 4-valinepergidin and dephosphorylated pergidin) were identified from three species in the family Pergidae and one in Argidae. Here, the hypothesis of widespread occurrence of these peptides among sawflies was tested by LC-MS analyses of single larvae from eight pergid and 28 argid species, plus nine outgroup species. At least two of the five peptides were detected in most sawfly species, whereas none in any outgroup taxon. Wherever peptides were detected, they were present in each examined specimen of the respective species. Some species show high peptide concentrations, reaching up to 0.6% fresh weight of 4-valinepergidin (1.75 mg/larva) in the pergid Pterygophorus nr turneri. All analyzed pergids in the subfamily Pterygophorinae contained pergidin and 4-valinepergidin, all argids in Arginae contained pergidin and one of the two lophyrotomins, whereas none of the peptides was detected in any Perginae pergid or Sterictiphorinae argid (except in Schizocerella pilicornis, which contained pergidin). Three of the four sawfly species that were previously known to contain toxins were reanalyzed here, resulting in several, often strong, quantitative and qualitative differences in the chemical profiles. The most probable ecological role of the peptides is defense against natural enemies; the poisoning of livestock is an epiphenomenon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Luc Boevé
- Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Raoul Rozenberg
- Institute of Condensed Matter and Nanosciences, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Akihiko Shinohara
- Department of Zoology, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Stefan Schmidt
- Zoologische Staatssammlung, Staatliche Naturwissenschaftliche Sammlungen Bayerns, München, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Highly Toxic Microcystis aeruginosa Strain, Isolated from São Paulo—Brazil, Produce Hepatotoxins and Paralytic Shellfish Poison Neurotoxins. Neurotox Res 2010; 19:389-402. [DOI: 10.1007/s12640-010-9177-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2009] [Revised: 03/18/2010] [Accepted: 03/20/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
4
|
Tooming-Klunderud A, Rohrlack T, Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Kristensen T, Jakobsen KS. Structural analysis of a non-ribosomal halogenated cyclic peptide and its putative operon from Microcystis: implications for evolution of cyanopeptolins. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2007; 153:1382-1393. [PMID: 17464052 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.2006/001123-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The structure of the major peptide produced by Microcystis cf. wesenbergii NIVA-CYA 172/5, the halogenated heptapeptide cyanopeptolin-984, was determined using LC/MS/MS. A gene cluster encoding a peptide synthetase putatively producing a cyanopeptolin was cloned from the same strain and sequenced. The cluster consists of four genes encoding peptide synthetases and one gene encoding a halogenase. Two additional ORFs transcribed in the opposite direction were found in the 5' flanking sequence; one of these encodes an ABC transporter. The overall organization of the cyanopeptolin synthetase operon (mcn) resembles a previously analysed anabaenopeptilide synthetase operon (apd) from Anabaena strain 90. Phylogenetic analyses of the individual domains from Mcn, Apd and other cyanobacterial peptide synthetases showed clustering of the adenylation domains according to function irrespective of operon origin - indicating strong functional constraints across peptide synthetases. In contrast, the condensation and thiolation domains to a large extent grouped according to operon affiliation or position in the respective operons. Phylogenetic analyses of condensation domains indicated that N-terminal domains and domains that condense L-amino acids and D-amino acids, respectively, form three separate groups. Although recombination events are likely to be involved in the evolution of mcn, no clear evidence of genetic recombination between the two cyanopeptolin gene clusters was found. Within the genus Microcystis, microcystin and cyanopeptolin synthetases have an evolutionary history of genomic coexistence. However, the data indicated that the two classes of peptide synthetase gene clusters have evolved independently.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters/genetics
- Anabaena/genetics
- Bacterial Proteins/genetics
- Chromatography, Liquid
- DNA, Bacterial/chemistry
- DNA, Bacterial/genetics
- Evolution, Molecular
- Gene Order
- Mass Spectrometry
- Microcystis/genetics
- Microcystis/metabolism
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Molecular Structure
- Multigene Family
- Oligopeptides/biosynthesis
- Oligopeptides/chemistry
- Oligopeptides/genetics
- Open Reading Frames
- Operon
- Oxidoreductases/genetics
- Peptide Synthases/genetics
- Peptides, Cyclic/biosynthesis
- Peptides, Cyclic/chemistry
- Peptides, Cyclic/genetics
- Phylogeny
- Protein Structure, Tertiary/genetics
- Sequence Analysis, DNA
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas Rohrlack
- NIVA, Norwegian Institute for Water Research, 0411 Oslo, Norway
| | - Kamran Shalchian-Tabrizi
- Department of Biology, Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Tom Kristensen
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Kjetill S Jakobsen
- Department of Biology, Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), University of Oslo, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Abstract
Preparative reversed-phase liquid chromatography was successfully used to purify two microcystins (microcystin LR and microcystin LA) from a cyanobacterial process waste. The separation protocol involved extraction of lyophilized cells by methanol, isolation and concentration by solid-phase extraction, and purification by reversed-phase HPLC. Milligram-level loading of microcystins was obtained on a solid-phase extraction cartridge packed with 0.5 g of C18 stationary phase. The separations were first carried out on an analytical column and then scaled-up to a preparative column. The microcystins were quantified by HPLC and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. A method to remove microcystins rapidly and economically from the cyanobacterial process waste is also described.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Ramanan
- Department of Bioresource Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis 97331-3906, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Neumann U, Campos V, Cantarero S, Urrutia H, Heinze R, Weckesser J, Erhard M. Co-occurrence of non-toxic (cyanopeptolin) and toxic (microcystin) peptides in a bloom of Microcystis sp. from a Chilean lake. Syst Appl Microbiol 2000; 23:191-7. [PMID: 10930070 DOI: 10.1016/s0723-2020(00)80004-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A cyanobacterial bloom occurring in 1998 in lake Tres Pascualas (Concepción/Chile) was found to be dominated by Microcystis sp. The bloom contained both non-toxic (cyanopeptolin-type) and hepatotoxic (microcystin-type) peptides. Cyanopeptolin structure of the non-toxic peptides (called cyanopeptolin VW-1 and VW-2, respectively) was revealed by matrix assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) of whole cells, showing dominant molecular ions at m/z = 975 and m/z 995, respectively. On post source decay (PSD), both cyanopeptolins showed fragments deriving from Ahp-Phe-MTyr (3-amino-6-hydroxy-2-piperidone), the characteristic partial structure of cyanopeptolins. The amounts of each of the two cyanopeptolins could only roughly be estimated to be >0.1% of bloom material dry weight. In addition the blooms contained microcystins (20 microg/g bloom dry weight as determined by RP-HPLC, 13 microg/g according to ELISA determination). MALDI-TOF-MS revealed several structural variants of microcystin: MCYST-RR (microcystin with Arg and Arg, indicated by m/z 1,038 and confirmed by PSD revealing a m/z = 135 fragment deriving from the Adda side chain, MCYST-FR (microcystin with Phe and Arg, indicated by m/z = 1,015). The presence of [Asp(3)]-MCYST-LR (microcystin with Leu and Arg, Asp non-methylated, indicated by m/z 981), and [Asp(3)]-MCYST-YR (microcystin with Tyr and Arg, Asp non-methylated, indicated by m/z 1,031) were likely. The relative amounts of the peptides varied between February, April, and May. Whole cell extracts from the bloom material revealed specific enzyme inhibitory activities. The serin-proteases trypsin, plasmin, elastase were inhibited, assumable due to the cyanopeptolins found. Elastase and the cysteine-protease papain were not inhibited, inhibitions of protein kinase and glutathione S-transferase (GST) were low. Strong inhibition was observed with protein-phosphatase-1, likely due to the microcystins present in the samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- U Neumann
- Universität Freiburg, Institut für Biologie II, Mikrobiologie, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Namikoshi M, Rinehart KL. Bioactive compounds produced by cyanobacteria. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 1996. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01574768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
8
|
Meissner K, Dittmann E, Börner T. Toxic and non-toxic strains of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa contain sequences homologous to peptide synthetase genes. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1996; 135:295-303. [PMID: 8595871 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1996.tb08004.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxic strains of Microcystis aeruginosa produce cyclic heptatoxins (microcystins) that are believed to be synthesized non-ribosomally by peptide synthetases. We analysed toxin-producing and non-toxic strains of M. aeruginosa with respect to the presence of DNA sequences potentially encoding peptide synthetases. Hybridizations of genomic DNA of various M. aeruginosa strains with PCR-amplificated fragments possessing homologies to adenylate-forming domains of peptide synthetase genes provided first evidence for the existence of corresponding genes in cyanobacteria. Furthermore we isolated and sequenced from genomic libraries overlapping fragments of M. aeruginosa DNA with a total length of 2982 bp showing significant homology to genes encoding peptide synthetases and hybridizing exclusively with DNA from toxic strains. Our results indicate that both toxic and non-toxic strains of M. aeruginosa possess genes coding for peptide synthetases and that hepatotoxin-producing and non-toxic strains differ in their content of genes for specific peptide synthetases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Meissner
- Institut für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Bateman KP, Thibault P, Douglas DJ, White RL. Mass spectral analyses of microcystins from toxic cyanobacteria using on-line chromatographic and electrophoretic separations. J Chromatogr A 1995; 712:253-68. [PMID: 8556152 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9673(95)00438-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The application of capillary electrophoresis and of reversed-phase liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray mass spectrometry is presented for the analysis of microcystins isolated from toxic strains of Microcystis aeruginosa. The separation performance of these two techniques is compared in terms of both sensitivity and of resolution of closely related microcystins. Quantitation of microcystin-LR present at low micrograms/ml concentrations in cell extracts is demonstrated using both techniques. A marked advantage of capillary electrophoresis over liquid chromatography was its ability to resolve different desmethyl microcystin-LR analogues. Identification of these positional isomers was facilitated using capillary electrophoresis combined with tandem mass spectrometry (MS-MS). Rationalization of fragment ions observed in MS-MS spectra of microcystins was made possible through comparison with 15N labelled microcystins obtained from stable isotope feeding experiments. The potential of tandem mass spectrometry in providing selective detection of microcystins in cell extracts, and in structural characterization of novel microcystins, was also investigated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K P Bateman
- Chemistry Department, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
Nitrate- and phosphate-limited conditions had no effect on toxin production by Microcystis aeruginosa. In contrast, iron-limited conditions influenced toxin production by M. aeruginosa, and iron uptake was light dependent. A model for production of toxin by M. aeruginosa is proposed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Utkilen
- Department of Environmental Medicine, National Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Lanaras T, Cook CM. Toxin extraction from an Anabaenopsis milleri--dominated bloom. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 1994; 142:163-169. [PMID: 8191273 DOI: 10.1016/0048-9697(94)90324-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports the presence of microcystin type toxins in extracts of a natural bloom of cyanobacteria composed predominantly of Anabaenopsis milleri Woronichin. The toxins have been extracted, purified and compared to microcystin-LR. The LD50 of A. milleri bloom material was 600-1500 mg lyophilized cells/kg body weight. Symptoms and pathological signs of poisoning in mice were characteristic of cyanobacterial hepatotoxins, with enlarged darkened livers with weights of 8-10% of the total body weight. Thin-layer chromatography of the extract resulted in one toxic band, which was separated from pigments and 280-nm absorbing compounds. The toxic fraction was further separated using reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography and one toxic band was recovered. This fraction yielded a single, toxic peak with a retention time of 11.3 min after high performance liquid chromatography. The absorption spectrum of the purified toxin had a maximum at 238-240 nm and was characteristic of cyanobacterial hepatotoxic peptides. Comparison of the chromatographic behaviour of the purified toxin with microcystin-LR on reversed phase and on internal surface reversed phase, high performance liquid chromatography indicated that an A. milleri bloom material toxin was a microcystin type toxin and it is highly likely that the purified toxin is microcystin-LR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Lanaras
- Department of Botany, University of Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Swain N, Rath B, Adhikary SP. Growth response of the cyanobacteriumMicrocystis aeruginosa to herbicides and pesticides. J Basic Microbiol 1994. [DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3620340311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
|
13
|
Cremer J, Henning K. Application of reversed-phase medium-pressure liquid chromatography to the isolation, separation and amino acid analysis of two closely related peptide toxins of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa strain PCC 7806. J Chromatogr A 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/0021-9673(91)85199-p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
14
|
Dierstein R, Kaiser I, Weckesser J. Inhibition of Prodigiosin Formation in Serratia marcescens by Extracts of Toxic Cyanobacteria. Syst Appl Microbiol 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/s0723-2020(89)80069-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
15
|
|