cDNA sequence analysis and mutagenesis studies on the A chain of beta-bungarotoxin from Taiwan banded krait

Transcriptomic analysis of the venom gland of the red-headed krait (Bungarus flaviceps) using expressed sequence tags

Background

The Red-headed krait (Bungarus flaviceps, Squamata: Serpentes: Elapidae) is a medically important venomous snake that inhabits South-East Asia. Although the venoms of most species of the snake genus Bungarus have been well characterized, a detailed compositional analysis of B. flaviceps is currently lacking.

Results

Here, we have sequenced 845 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) from the venom gland of a B. flaviceps. Of the transcripts, 74.8% were putative toxins; 20.6% were cellular; and 4.6% were unknown. The main venom protein families identified were three-finger toxins (3FTxs), Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitors (including chain B of β-bungarotoxin), phospholipase A₂ (including chain A of β-bungarotoxin), natriuretic peptide (NP), CRISPs, and C-type lectin.

Conclusion

The 3FTxs were found to be the major component of the venom (39%). We found eight groups of unique 3FTxs and most of them were different from the well-characterized 3FTxs. We found three groups of Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitors (SPIs); one group was comparable to the classical SPIs and the other two groups to chain B of β-bungarotoxins (with or without the extra cysteine) based on sequence identity. The latter group may be functional equivalents of dendrotoxins in Bungarus venoms. The natriuretic peptide (NP) found is the first NP for any Asian elapid, and distantly related to Australian elapid NPs. Our study identifies several unique toxins in B. flaviceps venom, which may help in understanding the evolution of venom toxins and the pathophysiological symptoms induced after envenomation.

Mapping structural determinants of biological activities in snake venom phospholipases A2 by sequence analysis and site directed mutagenesis

In addition to their catalytic activity, snake venom phospholipases A2 (vPLA2) present remarkable diversity in their biological effects. Sequence alignment analyses of functionally related PLA2 are frequently used to predict the structural determinants of these effects, and the predictions are subsequently evaluated by site directed mutagenesis experiments and functional assays. In order to improve the predictive potential of computer-based analysis, a simple method for scanning amino acid variation analysis (SAVANA) has been developed and included in the analysis of the lysine 49 PLA2 myotoxins (Lys49-PLA2). The SAVANA analysis identified positions in the C-terminal loop region of the protein, which were not identified using previously available sequence analysis tools. Site directed mutagenesis experiments of bothropstoxin-I, a Lys49-PLA2 isolated from the venom of Bothrops jararacussu, reveals that these residues are exactly those involved in the determination of myotoxic and membrane damaging activities. The SAVANA method has been used to analyse presynaptic neurotoxic and anti-coagulant vPLA2s, and the predicted structural determinants of these activities are in excellent agreement with the available results of site directed mutagenesis experiments. The positions of residues involved in the myotoxic and neurotoxic determinants demonstrate significant overlap, suggesting that the multiple biological effects observed in many snake vPLA2s are a consequence of superposed structural determinants on the protein surface.

The organization of the genes encoding the A chains of beta-bungarotoxins: evidence for the skipping of exon

Bungarus multicinctus (Taiwan banded krait) beta-bungarotoxins consist of two dissimilar polypeptide chains, A and B. The A chain is structurally homologous to phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) enzymes. The structural organization of the genes encoding A1, A2 and A8 chains are reported in this study. Their nucleotide sequences shared up to 97.5% identity. Alignment of the determined A chain genes with their cDNAs revealed that A1 chain gene organized with four exons and three introns, while A2 chain gene comprised three exons and two introns. When A2 chain is expressed, the region corresponding to the first exon of A1 chain gene is skipped instead of the inclusion of intronic sequence adjacent to the second exon. The resulting A2 chain mRNA encoded a 25 residue signal peptide, which is different from A1 chain mRNA with a 27 residue signal peptide. Nevertheless, expression of the A chain genes was partly regulated by a common mechanism as evidenced by sequence conservation of their promoter region and consensus transcriptional factor binding-sites inside this region. 5'-RACE analyses revealed that A chain mRNAs with 27 residue signal peptide represented the predominant species in the preparation of B. multicinctus venom gland mRNAs. Comparative analyses on PLA(2) genes and cDNAs suggest that this is the first report on the skipping of exon which changes the signal peptide sequence of snake venom proteins.

Expression of A chain and B chain of beta-bungarotoxin from taiwan banded krait: the functional implication of the interchain disulfide bond between A chain and B chain

beta-Bungarotoxin (beta-Bgt), the main presynaptic neurotoxin purified from the venom of Bungarus multicinctus, consists of two dissimilar polypeptide chains, the A chain and B chain, cross-linked by an interchain disulfide bond. The A and B chain cDNAs were subcloned into expression vectors pT7-7 and pET20b(+), respectively, and transformed into Escherichia coli strain BL21(DE3). The expressed protein was isolated from the inclusion bodies of E. coli and subjected to refolding into its folded structure. The yields of the refolded A and B chains increased markedly by at least 100-fold after substituting Ser for Cys1S of A chain and Cys55 of B chain, which formed an interchain disulfide bond. Either the A(C15) chain or B(C55S) chain alone or in combination cannot exhibit the phospholipase A2 activity or synaptosome binding activity of beta-Bgt. Nevertheless, the results of competitive enzyme-linked immunoassay, CD spectra, and fluorescence measurement revealed that the A(C15S) chain and B(C55S) chain possessed a native-like structure like the subunits of native beta-Bgt. Moreover, the interfacial interaction between the A and B chains explored by glutaraldehyde cross-linking revealed the essential aspects of the intact interchain disulfide bond in this interaction. This suggests that the formation of the interchain disulfide bond should not be a crucial step for the formation of folded A and B chains in the venom glands, and that the integrity of the interchain disulfide linkage favors the subunit interaction that consequently fulfills the functional mechanism of beta-Bgt.

Genetic organization of A chain and B chain of beta-bungarotoxin from Taiwan banded krait (Bungarus multicinctus). A chain genes and B chain genes do not share a common origin

beta-Bungarotoxin, the main presynaptic neurotoxin purified from the venom of Bungarus multicinctus, consists of two dissimilar polypeptide chains, the A chain and the B chain, cross-linked by an interchain disulfide bond. In this study, A and B chain genes isolated from the liver of B. multicinctus encoded the A and B chain precursors, respectively. Analyses of the coding regions of the A and B chain genes revealed that both consist of three exons and two introns. The sequences of all exon/intron junctions agree with the GT/AG rule. However, sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis did not support that the evolution of A and B chain genes are closely related. Comparative analysis of A chain genes with Viperinae and Crotalinae phospholipase A2 genes indicated that genetic divergence of the A chain and phospholipase A2s was in accordance with their family. Moreover, evolutionary divergence of the intron and exon regions of the A chain, as observed for phospholipase A2 genes, was not consistent. Noticeably, the transcription of A and B chain genes may be regulated under different transcription factors as revealed by analyses of their promoter sequences. In terms of the finding that A and B chains are encoded separately by different genes, this strongly supports the view that the intact beta-bungarotoxin molecules should be derived from the pairing of A and B chains after their mRNAs are translated.

Cloning and functional expression of B chains of beta-bungarotoxins from Bungarus multicinctus (Taiwan banded krait)

The cDNA species encoding the B chains (B1 and B2) of beta-bungarotoxins (beta-Bgt) were constructed from the cellular RNA isolated from the venom glands of Bungarus multicinctus (Taiwan banded krait). The deduced amino acid sequences of the B chains were different from those determined previously by a protein sequencing technique. One additional Arg residue is inserted between Val-19 and Arg-20 of the B1 chain. Similarly the insertion of one additional Val residue between Val-19 and Arg-20 of the B2 chain is noted. Thus the B chains should comprise 61 amino acid residues. Moreover, the residues at positions 44-46 are Gly-Asn-His, in contrast with a previous result showing the sequence His-Gly-Asn. Instead of Asp, the residues at positions 41 and 43 are Asn. The B chain was subcloned into the expression vector pET-32a(+) and transformed into Escherichia coli strain BL21(DE3). The recombinant B chain was expressed as a fusion protein and purified on a His-Bind resin column. The yield of affinity-purified fusion protein was increased markedly by replacing Cys-55 of the B chain with Ser. However, the isolated B(C55S) chain became insoluble in aqueous solution after removal of the fused protein from the affinity-purified product, suggesting that protein-protein interactions might be crucial for stabilizing the structure of the B chain. The B(C55S) chain fusion protein showed activity in blocking the voltage-dependent K+ channel, but did not inhibit the binding of beta-Bgt to synaptosomal membranes. These results, together with the finding that modification of His-48 of the A chain of beta-Bgt caused a marked decrease in the ability to bind toxin to its acceptor proteins, suggest that the B chain is involved in the K+ channel blocking action observed with beta-Bgt, and that the binding of beta-Bgt to neuronal receptors is not heavily dependent on the B chain.