Dichloromethane attracts diabroticite larvae in a laboratory behavioral bioassay

Plant-associated CO2 mediates long-distance host location and foraging behaviour of a root herbivore

Insect herbivores use different cues to locate host plants. The importance of CO₂ in this context is not well understood. We manipulated CO₂ perception in western corn rootworm (WCR) larvae through RNAi and studied how CO₂ perception impacts their interaction with their host plant. The expression of a carbon dioxide receptor, DvvGr2, is specifically required for dose-dependent larval responses to CO₂. Silencing CO₂ perception or scrubbing plant-associated CO₂ has no effect on the ability of WCR larvae to locate host plants at short distances (<9 cm), but impairs host location at greater distances. WCR larvae preferentially orient and prefer plants that grow in well-fertilized soils compared to plants that grow in nutrient-poor soils, a behaviour that has direct consequences for larval growth and depends on the ability of the larvae to perceive root-emitted CO₂. This study unravels how CO₂ can mediate plant–herbivore interactions by serving as a distance-dependent host location cue.

Living deep in the ground and surrounded by darkness, soil insects must rely on the chemicals released by plants to find the roots they feed on. Carbon dioxide, for example, is a by-product of plant respiration, which, above ground, is thought to attract moths to flowers and flies to apples; underground, however, its role is still unclear. This gaseous compound can travel through soil and potentially act as a compass for root-eating insects. Yet, it is also produced by decaying plants or animals, which are not edible. It is therefore possible that insects use this signal as a long-range cue to orient themselves, but then switch to another chemical when closer to their target to narrow in on an actual food source.

To test this idea, Arce et al. investigated whether carbon dioxide guides the larvae of Western corn rootworm to maize roots. First, the rootworm genes responsible for sensing carbon dioxide were identified and switched off, making the larvae unable to detect this gas. When the genetically engineered rootworms were further than 9cm from maize roots, they were less able to locate that food source; closer to the roots, however, the insects could orient themselves towards the plant. This suggests that the insects use carbon dioxide at long distances but rely on another chemicals to narrow down their search at close range.

To confirm this finding, Arce et al. tried absorbing the carbon dioxide using soda lime, leading to similar effects: carbon dioxide sensitive insects stopped detecting the roots at long but not short distances. Additional experiments then revealed that the compound could help insects find the best roots to feed on. Indeed, eating plants that grow on rich terrain – for instance, fertilized soils – helps insects to grow bigger and faster. These roots also release more carbon dioxide, in turn attracting rootworms more frequently.

In the United States and Eastern Europe, Western corn rootworms inflict major damage to crops, highlighting the need to understand and manage the link between fertilization regimes, carbon dioxide release and how these pests find their food.

Assessment of Potential Risks of Dietary RNAi to a Soil Micro-arthropod, Sinella curviseta Brook (Collembola: Entomobryidae)

RNAi-based genetically engineered (GE) crops for the management of insect pests are likely to be commercialized by the end of this decade. Without a workable framework for conducting the ecological risk assessment (ERA) and a standardized ERA protocol, however, the utility of RNAi transgenic crops in pest management remains uncertain. The overall goal of this study is to assess the risks of RNAi-based GE crops on a non-target soil micro-arthropod, Sinella curviseta, which could be exposed to plant-protected dsRNAs deposited in crop residues. Based on the preliminary research, we hypothesized that insecticidal dsRNAs targeting at the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera, a billion-dollar insect pest, has no adverse impacts on S. curviseta, a soil decomposer. Following a tiered approach, we tested this risk hypothesis using a well-designed dietary RNAi toxicity assay. To create the worst-case scenario, the full-length cDNA of v-ATPase subunit A from S. curviseta were cloned and a 400 bp fragment representing the highest sequence similarity between target pest and non-target arthropods was selected as the template to synthesize insecticidal dsRNAs. Specifically, 10-days-old S. curviseta larvae were subjected to artificial diets containing v-ATPase A dsRNAs from both D. v. virgifera (dsDVV) and S. curviseta (dsSC), respectively, a dsRNA control, β-glucuronidase, from plant (dsGUS), and a vehicle control, H2O. The endpoint measurements included gene expression profiles, survival, and life history traits, such as developmental time, fecundity, hatching rate, and body length. Although, S. curviseta larvae developed significantly faster under the treatments of dsDVV and dsSC than the vehicle control, the combined results from both temporal RNAi effect study and dietary RNAi toxicity assay support the risk hypothesis, suggesting that the impacts of ingested arthropod-active dsRNAs on this representative soil decomposer are negligible.

Short-chain alkanes synergise responses of moth pests to their sex pheromones

BACKGROUND

The use of sex pheromones for mating disruption of moth pests of crops is increasing worldwide. Efforts are under way to augment the efficiency and reliability of this control method by adding molecules derived from host plants to the sex attractants in dispensers.

RESULTS

We show how attraction of the European grapevine moth, Lobesia botrana Den. & Schiff., and the codling moth, Cydia pomonella L., males to underdosed levels of their sex pheromones is increased by adding heptane or octane over a range of release rates. Pheromone-alkane mixtures enhance male recruitment by up to 30%, reaching levels induced by calling females, and shorten the flight time to the sex attractant by a factor of 2.

CONCLUSION

The findings show the promise of using short-chain alkanes as pheromone synergists for mating disruption of insect pests of food crops. Alkane-pheromone combinations are expected to increase the competitiveness of dispensers with females, and to reduce the amount of pheromone needed for the control of these pests.

Development and Characterization of MIR604 Resistance in a Western Corn Rootworm Population (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

mCry3A is one of only four proteins licensed for commercial use in Diabrotica control. Utilizing a colony of western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, selected for resistance to mCry3A, we evaluated how mCry3A resistance was inherited and whether fitness costs were associated with mCry3A resistance. Reciprocal crosses between a selected colony and a control colony were performed; resulting progeny along with parent colonies were evaluated in dose toxicity assays, greenhouse assays, and seedling assays. Dose toxicity assay results were inconclusive, as the highest dose of protein tested did not produce sufficient mortality for accurate LC50 calculation. In whole-plant greenhouse assays on mCry3A-expressing corn, larval relative survival of the selected female × control male reciprocal cross was similar to that of the selected colony, while that of the control female × selected male was intermediate between the mCry3-selected colony and the control colony. However, when adult relative survival in whole-plant greenhouse assays was examined, no significant difference between the reciprocal crosses and the two parent colonies was detected. Heritability calculations based on both larval (0.66) and adult (1.03) survival data indicate that resistance to mCry3A is not inherited in a recessive manner. The selected colony was removed from selection pressure and evaluated after three or eight generations of removal. At three generations of removal from selection, a slight decrease in larval relative survival was detected compared with the selected colony. At eight generations of removal from selection, larval relative survival was comparable with that of the selected colony.

Behavioural response of wheat bulb fly (Delia coarctata, Diptera: Anthomyiidae) larvae to the primary plant metabolite carbon dioxide

Wheat bulb fly (WBF) larvae use chemotaxis to orientate towards host-plant root exudates. This study aimed to investigate the role of the primary plant metabolite carbon dioxide (CO2) in host-plant location by WBF. Arena based behavioural experiments were used to identify whether CO2 induced chemotaxis (directional movement in response to a chemical stimulus) or kinesis (non-directional movement in response to a stimulus) from WBF larvae. No chemotactic response was observed when larvae were presented to a point source of CO2. However, elevated levels of CO2 induced kinesis, with both track length and tortuosity (number of twists and turns in the movement path) increasing at elevated CO2 levels of 1000-2000 ppm, demonstrating increased searching behaviour. Soil emission of CO2 was quantified to compare soil levels with those identified as eliciting behavioural effects on the larvae. Samples removed from soil gave a mean CO2 concentration of 557 (±46) ppm, which is lower than the lowest concentration of CO2 found to induce a behavioural response and higher than the lowest CO2 concentration tested, which was found not to alter behaviour. It is proposed that increased CO2 concentrations in the soil act as a behavioural trigger, inducing intensive searching of an area by WBF larvae. This increases the likelihood of finding more host-specific identifiers, such as secondary metabolites when near a potential host-plant.

Foraging in the dark - chemically mediated host plant location by belowground insect herbivores

Root-feeding insects are key components in many terrestrial ecosystems. Like shoot-feeding insect herbivores, they exploit a range of chemical cues to locate host plants. Respiratory emissions of carbon dioxide (CO(2)) from the roots is widely reported as the main attractant, however, there is conflicting evidence about its exact role. CO(2) may act as a 'search trigger' causing insects to search more intensively for more host specific signals, or the plant may 'mask' CO(2) emissions with other root volatiles thus avoiding detection. At least 74 other compounds elicit behavioral responses in root-feeding insects, with the majority (>80 %) causing attraction. Low molecular weight compounds (e.g., alcohols, esters, and aldehydes) underpin attraction, whereas hydrocarbons tend to have repellent properties. A range of compounds act as phagostimulants (e.g., sugars) once insects feed on roots, whereas secondary metabolites often deter feeding. In contrast, some secondary metabolites usually regarded as plant defenses (e.g., dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA)), can be exploited by some root-feeding insects for host location. Insects share several host location cues with plant parasitic nematodes (CO(2), DIMBOA, glutamic acid), but some compounds (e.g., cucurbitacin A) repel nematodes while acting as phagostimulants to insects. Moreover, insect and nematode herbivory can induce exudation of compounds that may be mutually beneficial, suggesting potentially significant interactions between the two groups of herbivores. While a range of plant-derived chemicals can affect the behavior of root-feeding insects, little attempt has been made to exploit these in pest management, though this may become a more viable option with diminishing control options.

Response of grape root borer (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) neonates to root extracts from Vitaceae species and rootstocks

Observations at regular intervals of the location of newly hatched grape root borer, Vitacea polistiformis (Harris), larvae moving freely within circular petri dish bioassays were used to measure and compare their response to dry filter paper discs treated with ethanol- or hexane-based extracts of roots from known and potential Vitaceae hosts and a nonhost. Larvae responded most strongly to discs treated with ethanol extracts, suggesting the presence of behaviorally active, polar compounds associated with roots. In single extract bioassays comparing extract versus solvent treated discs, larvae responded positively to ethanol extracts from all Vitis species and rootstocks and Virginia creeper [Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch.], but not to apple (Malus domestica Borkh). Paired extract bioassays, in which an extract from the commercially important 3309 rootstock was used as the standard and presented simultaneously with extracts from other root sources, revealed examples of equal, significantly weaker and significantly stronger responses to the 3309 extract. Extracts of the 420 A and V. riparia 'Gloire' rootstocks appeared to possess qualities that elicited a consistently greater response than to 3309 extract in these pair-wise comparisons. The active compounds were eluted in ethanol during a 30-min extraction; larvae responded equally to 30- and 60-min 3309 root extracts in paired extract bioassays. Larvae responded equally to extracts of 3309 roots from three spatially separate vineyards in northern Virginia. These results are discussed in relation to the subterranean, plant-insect interactions of grape root borer neonates with the numerous native and non-native Vitis species that may serve as hosts in the eastern United States.