Structure-activity of type I interferons

Targeted mutations in IFNα2 improve its antiviral activity against various viruses

IMPORTANCE

The potency of interferon (IFN)α to restrict viruses was already discovered in 1957. However, until today, only IFNα2 out of the 12 distinct human IFNα subtypes has been therapeutically used against chronic viral infections. There is convincing evidence that other IFNα subtypes are far more efficient than IFNα2 against many viruses. In order to identify critical antiviral residues within the IFNα subtype sequence, we designed hybrid molecules based on the IFNα2 backbone with individual sequence motifs from the more potent subtypes IFNα6 and IFNα14. In different antiviral assays with HIV or HBV, residues binding to IFNAR1 as well as combinations of residues in the IFNAR1 binding region, the putative tunable anchor, and residues outside these regions were identified to be crucial for the antiviral activity of IFNα. Thus, we designed artificial IFNα molecules, based on the clinically approved IFNα2 backbone, but with highly improved antiviral activity against several viruses.

Immunomodulatory and antitumor effects of type I interferons and their application in cancer therapy

During the last decades, the pleiotropic antitumor functions exerted by type I interferons (IFNs) have become universally acknowledged, especially their role in mediating interactions between the tumor and the immune system. Indeed, type I IFNs are now appreciated as a critical component of dendritic cell (DC) driven T cell responses to cancer. Here we focus on IFN-α and IFN-β, and their antitumor effects, impact on immune responses and their use as therapeutic agents. IFN-α/β share many properties, including activation of the JAK-STAT signaling pathway and induction of a variety of cellular phenotypes. For example, type I IFNs drive not only the high maturation status of DCs, but also have a direct impact in cytotoxic T lymphocytes, NK cell activation, induction of tumor cell death and inhibition of angiogenesis. A variety of stimuli, including some standard cancer treatments, promote the expression of endogenous IFN-α/β, which then participates as a fundamental component of immunogenic cell death. Systemic treatment with recombinant protein has been used for the treatment of melanoma. The induction of endogenous IFN-α/β has been tested, including stimulation through pattern recognition receptors. Gene therapies involving IFN-α/β have also been described. Thus, harnessing type I IFNs as an effective tool for cancer therapy continues to be studied.

Differential Biological Activities of Swine Interferon-α Subtypes

Interferons (IFNs) play a crucial role in the host's immune response and other homeostatic control actions. Three IFN types and several IFN families within the types allow for a plethora of regulatory actions. The number of distinct IFN molecules is highest among type I IFNs and, in particular, within the IFN-α family. In pigs, there are 17 IFN-α subtypes with different antiviral activities and different expression profiles; however, no data are available about biological properties other than the antiviral effector activities. Therefore, 16 porcine IFN-α genes were cloned, expressed in mammalian Chinese hamster ovary cells, and characterized for antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and MHC-modulating activities at a pre-established level of 10 IU/mL. Antiviral activity: IFN-α2, -α5, -α9, and -α10 showed the highest level of activity in a pseudorabies virus yield reduction assay. On the contrary, little, if any, activity was shown by IFN-α3, -α7, -α13, -α4, and -α15. Anti-inflammatory activity: With the exception of IFNs-α2, -α7, -α9, and -α11, all IFN-α subtypes had significant anti-inflammatory control activity in an interleukin-8 (IL-8) yield reduction assay. Gene expression analyses showed that some IFN-α subtypes can significantly downregulate the expression of IL-8, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), IL-6, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), βD1, and nuclear factor-κB (NF-kB) genes, while maintaining or upregulating the expression of βD4. Immunomodulation: A significant upregulation of class I and/or class II MHC was induced by all the IFNs under study, with the exception of IFNs-α11, -α15, and -α16, which instead significantly downregulated class I MHC. Our results indicate that gene duplications in the porcine IFN-α family underlie diverse effector and regulatory activities, being therefore instrumental in host survival and environmental adaptation. This role of IFN-α could be founded on fine-tuning and regulation of pro- and anti-inflammatory control actions after exposure to both infectious and noninfectious environmental stressors.

The type I interferons: Basic concepts and clinical relevance in immune-mediated inflammatory diseases

There is increasing scientific and clinical interest in elucidating the biology of type I Interferons, which began approximately 60 years ago with the concept of "viral interference", a property that reduces the ability of a virus to infect cells. Although our understanding of the multiple cellular and molecular functions of interferons has advanced significantly, much remains to be learned and type I Interferons remain an active and fascinating area of inquiry. In this review, we cover some general aspects of type I interferon genes, with emphasis on interferon-alpha, and various aspects of molecular mechanisms triggered by type I interferons and toll-like receptor signaling by the Janus activated kinase/signal transducer activation of transcription (JAK-STAT) pathway and interferon regulatory factor pathway. We will also describe the role of type I interferons in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, and its potential use as therapeutic agent.

Identification of type I IFN in Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus) and the response to an iridovirus infection

The type I IFNs play a major role in the first line of defense against virus infections. In this study, the type I IFN gene designated gsIFN was identified and characterized in the Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus). The genomic DNA of gsIFN contains 5 exons and 4 introns and has a total length of 5622 bp. The full-length cDNA sequence of gsIFN is 1113 bp and encodes a putative protein of 186 amino acids that has a 43% identity to type I IFN of Xenopus tropicalis. The deduced amino acid sequence has the C-terminal CAWE motif, that is mostly conserved in the higher vertebrate type I IFNs. Real-time fluorescence quantitative RT-PCR analysis revealed broad expression of gsIFN in vivo and the highest level expression in blood, kidney and spleen. Additionally, the expression of gsIFN at the mRNA level was significantly induced in peripheral blood leucocytes after stimulation with poly I:C and after infection with the Chinese giant salamander iridovirus (GSIV). A plasmid expressing gsIFN was constructed and transfected into the Chinese giant salamander muscle cell line. Expression of the IFN-inducible gene Mx was up-regulated in the gsIFN-overexpressing cells after GSIV infection. The virus load and titer were significantly reduced compared with that in control cells. Additionally, a lower level of virus major capsid protein synthesis was confirmed by immunofluorescence assay compared to the control cells. These results suggest that the gsIFN gene plays an important role in the antiviral innate immune response.

Characterization and virus-induced expression profiles of the porcine interferon-omega multigene family

Interferon-omega is a member of the type I interferon family. In this work, 8 functional porcine interferon-omega genes and 4 pseudogenes present on porcine chromosome 1 were identified in the porcine genome database by BLAST scanning. Their genetic and genomic characteristics were investigated using bioinformatics tools. Then the PoIFN-omega functional subtype genes were isolated and expressed in BHK-21 cells. The PoIFN-omega subtypes possessed about 10(4) to 10(5) units of antiviral activity per milliliter. PoIFN-omega 7 had the highest antiviral activity, about 20 times that of PoIFN-omega 4, which had the lowest antiviral activity. Differential expression of the subtypes was detected in PK15 cells and porcine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in response to pseudorabies virus and poly(I).poly(C). Expression of PoIFN-omega 2/-omega 6 was up-regulated to the greatest extent by virus infection.

The regulatory elements of araBAD operon, contrary to lac-based expression systems, afford hypersynthesis of murine, and human interferons in Escherichia coli

The overexpression of four different interferons, i.e., murine interferon alpha1 and human interferons alpha1, alpha 8, and alpha 21 was challenged in Escherichia coli. Synthetic genes coding for these interferons were designed, assembled, and cloned into the vector pET9a (using the NdeI and BamHI sites), placing interferon expression under the control of phage T7 promoter. Despite an intensive screening for optimal culture conditions, no interferon synthesis was observed using overexpression systems based on the regulatory elements of lac operon (e.g., in E. coli BL21DE3). On the contrary, high levels of interferon expression were detected in E. coli BL21AI, which chromosome contains the gene coding for phage T7 RNA polymerase under the control of the araBAD promoter. To analyze the reasons of this striking difference, the molecular events associated with the lack of interferon expression in E. coli BL21DE3 were studied, and murine interferon alpha1 was chosen as a model system. Surprisingly, it was observed that this interferon represses the synthesis of T7 RNA polymerase in E. coli BL21DE3 and, in particular, the expression of lac operon. In fact, by determining beta-galactosidase activity in E. coli BL21AI, a significantly lower LacZ activity was observed in cells induced to interferon synthesis.

The role of IFN-alpha as homeostatic agent in the inflammatory response: a balance between danger and response?

Interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) is thought of by most immunologists as a fundamental component of the antiviral innate immune response, with other, accessory properties. Several lines of evidence point to a fundamental reappraisal of this conceptual framework because it may neglect other crucial functions of this cytokine under both health and disease conditions. Among these, a regulatory role in the inflammatory response is probably of paramount importance, as shown by in vivo and in vitro studies on humans, pets, and farm and laboratory animals. This role would not conflict with the main functions of IFN-alpha in the innate immune system and would complement these in line with major, evolution-based needs of the host. A hinge role of IFN-alpha between innate and adaptive immunity was recognized in the past on the basis of compelling evidence. This concept should now be widened; not only does IFN-alpha act to trigger, amplify, and sustain the different phases of the immune response, but it could also promote a substantial balance between danger and inflammatory response when an infectious challenge is either declining or completely over.

Low-dose interferon-alpha treatment for feline immunodeficiency virus infection

Feline immunodeficiency virus sustains an AIDS-like syndrome in cats, which is considered a relevant model for human AIDS. Under precise enrolment requirements, 30 naturally infected cats showing overt disease were included in a trial of low-dose, oral human interferon-alpha treatment. Twenty-four of them received 10 IU/Kg of human interferon-alpha and 6 placebo only on a daily basis under veterinary supervision. The low-dose human interferon-alpha treatment significantly prolonged the survival of virus-infected cats (p<0.01) and brought to a rapid improvement of disease conditions in the infected hosts. Amelioration of clinical conditions was neither correlated with plasma viremia, nor with proviral load in leukocytes. A good survival of CD4+ T cells and a slow increase of CD8+ T cells were also observed in human interferon-alpha-treated cats. Interestingly, the improvement of the total leukocyte counts showed a much stronger correlation with the recovery from serious opportunistic infections. As shown in other models of low-dose interferon-alpha treatment, there was a rapid regression of overt immunopathological conditions in virus-infected cats. This hints at a major role of interferon-alpha in the control circuits of inflammatory cytokines, which was probably the very foundation of the improved clinical score and survival despite the unabated persistence of virus and virus-infected cells.

Synthesis and biological properties of chimeric interferon-alpha2b peptides

We have previously reported the antiproliferative activity of synthetic sequences 29-35 and 122-139 of the interferon-alpha2b (IFN-alpha2b), both probably representing a common receptor recognition domain. In the search of new peptidic agonists, we designed and synthesized the linear peptide (Gly)2-122-137-Gly138-Gly29-30-35-(Gly)2, in which Gly residues replaced the 138 and 29 Cys bound through a disulfide bridge in the native cytokine. Additionally, a cyclic analog was obtained by reaction of the N- and C-terminal ends of the linear fragment. Thus, the distance that separates residues 122 and 35 in the crystalline structure of the IFN-alpha2b was maintained through a (Gly)4 bridge. When the influence of chimeric peptides on the proliferation of WISH cells was studied, it was shown that both derivatives significantly diminished cell growth. A more evident inhibitory effect on (125)I-IFN-alpha2b binding to WISH cell-membrane receptors was observed for both peptides. Results indicated that chimeric IFN-alpha2b peptides behaved as partial agonists of the IFN-alpha2b molecule and may be of interest for drug design purposes.

Effects of IFN-α on the Inflammatory Response of Swine Leukocytes to Bacterial Endotoxin

Because low-dose interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) treatment had proved effective in several models of chronic inflammation and autoimmune disease, a possible role of IFN-alpha in modulating the response of swine leukocytes to bacterial endotoxin was investigated in this study. Exposure of swine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) to low concentrations of human IFN-alpha caused a strong, dose-dependent decrease in CD14 expression, the lowest level being observed at 5 U/ml IFN-alpha. This result was confirmed if PBMC were later exposed to purified lipopolysaccharide (LPS). A 10-fold lower IFN-alpha concentration (0.5 U/ml) caused the largest reduction of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) accumulation in the medium of pulmonary alveolar macrophages (PAM), stimulated with bacterial LPS. At 0.5 U/ml, the expression of the TNF-alpha gene in PAM was also strongly reduced, as opposed to cells pretreated with 50 U/ml IFN-alpha. In contrast, expression of the interleukin-1beta (IL- 1beta) gene was stimulated and that of the IL-6 gene was not significantly affected at both IFN-alpha concentrations. Results point to an important role of IFN-alpha in control of the inflammatory response to bacterial endotoxin in pigs.

IFN-alpha5 mediates stronger Tyk2-stat-dependent activation and higher expression of 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase than IFN-alpha2 in liver cells

Interferon-alpha5 (IFN-alpha5) is the main IFN-alpha subtype expressed in the liver. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is associated with low IFN-alpha5 mRNA levels, possibly reflecting an escape mechanism of the virus. In this work, we sought to compare IFN-alpha2 and IFN-alpha5 with respect to activation of early cell signaling cascades and induction of antiviral genes in the human hepatoma HepG2 and Huh7 cell lines. We found that the Tyr701 phosphorylation kinetics of Stat1 mediated by IFN stimulation was higher when cells were incubated with IFN-alpha5 than when using IFN-alpha2. Similarly, Tyr(1054/1055) phosphorylation kinetics of Tyk2 were more intense after exposure to IFN-alpha5 than when using IFN-alpha2. Concomitantly, Tyr705 phosphorylation of Stat3 was higher after stimulation with IFN-alpha5 than with IFN-alpha2. In parallel to these findings, the mRNA levels of the antiviral IFN-inducible gene 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase were higher in cell samples treated with IFN-alpha5 than with IFN-alpha2. These findings suggest that interaction of IFN-alpha5 and IFN-alpha2 subtypes with IFN type I receptor occurs differently, and this affects the intensity of expression of antiviral genes. In conclusion, our data show that in hepatocytic cells, IFN-alpha5 induces stronger signaling and higher expression of antiviral genes than IFN-alpha2. These data warrant clinical trials to evaluate the efficacy of IFN-alpha5 in chronic viral hepatitis.

Type I interferon genes from the egg‐laying mammal,Tachyglossus aculeatus(short‐beaked echidna)

The type I IFN are an important group of multifunctional cytokines that have, for whatever reason, evolved to a high level of complexity in eutherian mammals such as humans and mice. However, until recently, little was known about the type I IFN systems of the other two groups of extant mammals, the marsupials and the egg-laying monotremes. Preliminary partial type I IFN sequences from the short-beaked echidna were previously found to cluster only with the IFN-beta subtype in phylogenetic analyses, but a lack of sequence information made interpretation of these results tenuous. Here, we report cloning of the full-length genes of representatives from the two previously defined groups of echidna type I IFN by genomic walking PCR. Along with analysis of conserved cysteine placement and promoter elements, phylogenetic analysis incorporating these sequences strongly suggest that the two groups of echidna type I IFN genes are in fact homologous to IFN-alpha and IFN-beta, confirming that the duplication leading to these two major classes of type I IFN occurred prior to the divergence of eutherians and monotremes some 180 million years ago. Thus, even though there are major differences in gene copy number and heterogeneity, separate IFN-alpha and IFN-beta gene families are a feature of the cytokine networks of all three groups of living mammals.

Type I interferon structures: Possible scaffolds for the interferon-alpha receptor complex

The structures of several type I interferons (IFNs) are known. We review the structural information known for IFN alphas and compare them to other interferons and cytokines. We also review the structural information known or proposed for IFN–cell receptor complexes. However, the structure of the IFN – cell receptor – IFN receptor2 (IFNAR2) and IFN receptor1 (IFNAR1) complex has not yet been determined. This paper describes a structural model of human IFN-IFNAR2/IFNAR1 complex using human IFN-α2bdimer as the ligand. Both the structures of recombinant human IFN-α2band IFN-β were determined by X-ray crystallography as zinc-mediated dimers. Our proposed model was generated using human IFN-α2bdimer docked with IFNAR2/IFNAR1. We compare our model with the receptor complex models proposed for IFN-β and IFN-γ to contrast similarities and differences. The mutual binding sites of human IFN-α2band IFNAR2/IFNAR1 complex are consistent with available mutagenesis studies.Key words: three dimensional structure, antiviral activity, receptor, interferon.

Amino acid substitutions in loop BC and helix C affect antigenic properties of helix D in hybrid IFN-alpha21a/alpha2c molecules

We compared the antigenic properties of human interferon-alpha2c (IFN-alpha2c), IFN-alpha21a, hybrids IFN-alpha21a/alpha2c, and their mutants, using a panel of 27 anti-IFN-alpha1, anti-IFN-alpha2, and anti-IFN-alpha8/1/8 monoclonal antibodies (mAb). After immunoanalysis by ELISA, we found parental IFN-alpha2c and IFN-alpha21a to be antigenically distinct. Lack of reactivity of anti-IFN-alpha1 mAb with IFN-alpha21a indicated an antigenic distinction between subtypes alpha1 and alpha21a. The antigenic properties of hybrid IFNs consisting of the N-terminal portion (1-75) of IFN-alpha21a and the C-terminal portion (76-166) of IFN-alpha2c were analyzed with mAb recognizing defined regions of IFN-alpha2c, IFN-alpha1, and IFN-alpha8/1/8. We found that extending the sequence of IFN-alpha21a up to position 95 in hybrid molecule decreased the immunoreactivity of mAb specific for the antigenic structure formed by residues --112-132-- (helix D) of IFN-alpha2c. Inserting the sequence 76-81 (loop BC) of IFN-alpha2c into the sequence of 1-95 of IFN-alpha21a restored the reactivity of anti-IFN-alpha2c mAb. Some amino acid substitutions at positions 86 and 90 (helix C) of hybrid IFN-alpha21a/alpha2c also affected the immunoreactivity of C-terminal-specific mAb, which recognize helix D, but did not influence the structure of C-terminus of IFN (aa 151-165). Changes in the structure of constructs affected not only their antiproliferative activity but also their antiviral activity on human cells.

Human IFN-alpha protein engineering: the amino acid residues at positions 86 and 90 are important for antiproliferative activity

Human IFN-alpha is a family of structurally related proteins that exhibit a wide range of antiproliferative activities. To understand the structural basis for these different antiproliferative activities, eight recombinant human IFN-alpha hybrids (HY) of alpha21a/alpha2c (HY-4, HY-5) and mutants (site-directed mutagenesis (SDM)-1, 2 and cassette mutagenesis (CM)-1, 2, 3, and 4) have been expressed, purified, and characterized. The data showed that the amino acid region 81-95 is important for antiproliferative activity. Site-directed mutagenesis and cassette mutagenesis studies showed that if serine (S) 86 and asparagine (N) 90 were replaced by tyrosine (Y), the antiproliferative activity was increased. We have also observed that if Y86 was replaced by isoleucine (I), the antiproliferative activity was comparable. However, if Y86 was replaced by aspartic acid (D), lysine (K), or alanine (A), the antiproliferative activity was substantially decreased. Our results indicate that Y and/or I at position 86 and Y at position 90 are very important in antiproliferative activity of human IFN-alpha. Circular dichroism spectra showed that the amino acid replacements at position 86 did not change the secondary structure. Thus the biological activity changes among those mutants do not appear to be due to conformational changes. The results also suggest that hydrophobic residue(s) at position 86 may be important for the interaction of the molecule with its receptor. The competitive binding data correlated with the antiproliferative activity. The N-terminal region of the molecule and the hydrophobic residues (including Y and I) on the C-helix region at positions 86 and/or 90 are important for binding and antiproliferative activities of human IFN-alphas.

Suitable experimental conditions are required to characterize interferon-alpha2b synthetic peptides

The binding and antiproliferative activities of synthetic peptides 29-35 and 122-139 of interferon-alpha2b, both of which contain a cysteine residue in their sequences, were studied in the presence or absence of a dissociation medium containing mainly urea, dithiothreitol and 2-mercaptoethanol. Although interferon-alpha2b peptides either did not modify or slightly increased 125I-labelled interferon-alpha2b specific binding to WISH cell-membrane receptors in the absence of dissociation medium, significant binding inhibition was obtained when both peptides were assayed in dissociation medium. Furthermore, also in the presence of dissociating agents, the two fragments inhibited cell growth in a concentration-dependent manner, the 122-139 sequence being more effective than the 29-35 sequence. No additive effect on interferon binding and cell proliferation was observed when both peptides were added simultaneously. Results obtained after submitting peptide 122-139 to gel filtration or PAGE under different experimental conditions showed the presence of dimers and/or noncovalent aggregates arising from intermolecular disulfide bridges or hydrophobic interactions. Thus, our results indicated that peptide effects on 125I-labelled interferon-alpha2b binding and WISH cell proliferation were clearly manifested when the amount of monomeric species increased, showing that suitable experimental conditions should be used to study peptide behavior. The ability of both peptides to effectively trigger an interferon-specific biological action, such as cell growth inhibition, strongly suggested that 29-35 and 122-139 interferon-alpha2b fragments constitute the conformational epitope or mimotope that interacts with the cytokine-specific receptor.

Identification of a linear epitope of interferon-alpha2b recognized by neutralizing monoclonal antibodies

Four monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) directed against the recombinant human interferon-alpha2b (IFN-alpha2b) were used as probes to study the interaction of the IFN molecule to its receptors. The [125I]IFN-alpha2b binding to immobilized mAbs was completely inhibited by IFN-alpha2b and IFN-alpha2a but neither IFNbeta nor IFNgamma showed any effect. Gel-filtration HPLC of the immune complexes formed by incubating [125I]IFN-alpha2b with paired mAbs revealed the lack of simultaneous binding of two different antibodies to the tracer, suggesting that all mAbs recognize the same IFN antigenic domain. Furthermore, the mAbs were also able to neutralize the IFN-alpha2b anti-viral and anti-proliferative activities as well as [125I]IFN-alpha2b binding to WISH cell-membranes. As [125I]mAbs did not recognize IFN exposed epitopes in the IFN:receptor complexes, mAb induction of a conformational change in the IFN binding domain impairing its binding to receptors was considered unlikely. In order to identify the IFN region recognized by mAbs, IFN-alpha2b was digested with different proteolytic enzymes. Immunoreactivity of the resulting peptides was examined by Western blot and their sequences were established by Edman degradation after blotting to poly(vinylidene difluoride) membranes. Data obtained indicated that the smallest immunoreactive region recognized by mAbs consisted of residues 107-132 or 107-146. As this zone includes the sequence 123-140, which has been involved in the binding to receptors, and our mAbs did not show an allosteric behaviour, it is concluded that they are directed to overlapping epitopes located close to or even included in the IFN binding domain.

Divergence of Binding, Signaling, and Biological Responses to Recombinant Human Hybrid IFN

Three human IFN-α hybrids, HY-1 [IFN-α21a(1-75)/α2c(76-165)], HY-2 [IFN-α21a(1-95)/α2c(96-165)], and HY-3 [IFN-α2c(1-95)/α21a(96-166)], were constructed, cloned, and expressed. The hybrids had comparable specific antiviral activities on Madin-Darby bovine kidney (MDBK)3 cells but exhibited very different antiproliferative and binding properties on human Daudi and WISH cells and primary human lymphocytes. Our data suggest that a portion of the N-terminal region of the molecule is important for interaction with components involved in binding of IFN-α2b while the C-terminal portion of IFN is critical for antiproliferative activity. A domain affecting the antiproliferative activity was found within the C-terminal region from amino acid residues 75–166. The signal transduction properties of HY-2 and HY-3 were evaluated by EMSA and RNase protection assays. Both HY-2 and HY-3 induced activation of STAT1 and 2. However, HY-2 exhibited essentially no antiproliferative effects at concentrations that activated STAT1 and 2. Additionally, at concentrations where no antiproliferative activity was seen, HY-2 induced a variety of IFN-responsive genes to the same degree as HY-3. RNase protection assays also indicate that, at concentrations where no antiproliferative activity was seen for HY-2, this construct retained the ability to induce a variety of IFN-inducible genes. These data suggest that the antiproliferative response may not be solely directed by the activation of the STAT1 and STAT2 pathway in the cells tested.