Aerobic fitness and leisure physical activity as moderators of the stress-illness relation

How Stress Is Related to Age, Education, Physical Activity, Body Mass Index, and Body Fat Percentage in Adult Polish Men?

Stressful events and chronic tension are considered a burden and a threat to physical, mental, and social health. The aim of the study was to demonstrate the associations of variation in stress exposure with social factors, physical activity, basic components of physical fitness, body mass index (BMI) and percentage of body fat (BFP). An additional objective was to identify the main BFP modifiers among those analyzed. The material consisted of data of ethnically homogeneous group 355 men (32-87 yrs), invited to the study as part of the Wroclaw Male Study research project. The analyzed features included socioeconomic status (age, educational level), elements of lifestyle (physical activity), major and most important stressful life events-Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) and basic parameters of the somatic structure of the body (BMI, BFP). Statistical analyses included: chi-square test, Mann-Whitney U test and backward stepwise regression (significance level α = 0.05). Stress exposure showed significant socioeconomic variation among the adult Poles studied. Higher levels of education were associated with higher levels of stress. Significant correlations between SRRS and physical activity were found, especially in men older than 60 years and with higher levels of education. A positive relationship was shown between SRRS and BFP, especially in men under 60 years of age. BFP appeared to depend mainly on age and stress. The main determinants of SRRS were age and education level, while BFP turned out to be more sensitive to stress than BMI. The modifying force of physical activity for SRRS appears to be age dependent.

"Leisure Life Satisfaction:" Will It Have a Beneficial Impact on Depression Among Older Adults in Community Care Settings?

Objectives

While the risk of depression is expected to substantially increase among older adults receiving community care, leisure life satisfaction can be regarded as a key component in enhancing the mental health of those receiving community care. However, it is not yet known whether community care utilization increases the risk of depression, or what role is played by leisure life satisfaction in these settings. This study investigated the relationship between community care utilization and depression, as well as the main effect and the moderating role of leisure life satisfaction on the link between community care utilization and depression among older adults.

Methods

This study, using the 2019 Korean Welfare Panel Survey, conducted multiple regression analysis on data from 4494 elderly people aged 65 years or older.

Results

After controlling for potential covariates, older community care recipients were more likely to report symptoms of depression than those who did not receive community care. Meanwhile, leisure life satisfaction was negatively associated with depression in older adults. The test for interaction between community care utilization and leisure life satisfaction revealed that leisure life satisfaction significantly attenuated the link between depression and community care utilization.

Conclusions

The findings of this study imply that leisure life satisfaction could play a meaningful role in improving the mental health of older adults receiving community care. Welfare policies affecting older adults should consider leisure life satisfaction as an important resource for reducing depression in community care settings.

No Evidence for a Boost in Psychosocial Functioning in Older Age After a 6-Months Physical Exercise Intervention

The beneficial effects of physical exercise on physical health and cognitive functioning have been repeatedly shown. However, evidence of its effect on psychosocial functioning in healthy adults is still scarce or inconclusive. One limitation of many studies examining this link is their reliance on correlational approaches or specific subpopulations, such as clinical populations. The present study investigated the effects of a physical exercise intervention on key factors of psychosocial functioning, specifically well-being, stress, loneliness, and future time perspective. We used data from healthy, previously sedentary older adults (N = 132) who participated in a 6-month at-home intervention, either engaging in aerobic exercise or as part of a control group who participated in foreign language-learning or reading of selected native-language literature. Before and after the intervention, comprehensive cardiovascular pulmonary testing and a psychosocial questionnaire were administered. The exercise group showed significantly increased fitness compared to the control group. Contrary to expectations, however, we did not find evidence for a beneficial effect of this fitness improvement on any of the four domains of psychosocial functioning we assessed. This may be due to pronounced stability of such psychological traits in older age, especially in older adults who show high levels of well-being initially. Alternatively, it may be that the well-documented beneficial effects of physical exercise on brain structure and function, as well as cognition differ markedly from beneficial effects on psychosocial functioning. While aerobic exercise may be the driving factor for the former, positive effects on the latter may only be invoked by other aspects of exercise, for example, experiences of mastery or a feeling of community.

Relationships among the Degree of Participation in Physical Activity, Self-Concept Clarity, and COVID-19 Stress in Adolescents

The COVID-19 pandemic situation threatens the health of people globally, especially adolescents facing mental problems such as depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder due to constant COVID-19 stress. The present study aimed to provide basic data highlighting the need to alleviate COVID-19 stress among adolescents by promoting physical activity participation and strengthening self-concept clarity (SCC). To examine the relationships among participation in physical activity, SCC, and COVID-19 stress in pandemic-like conditions, the study was conducted on middle and high school students aged 14 to 19 and an online survey was conducted on 1046 Korean adolescents (521 male and 525 female students in the preliminary survey and main survey). Frequency, reliability, confirmatory factor, descriptive, and path analyses were performed using SPSS and AMOS 18.0. Participation in physical activity exerted a positive effect on SCC (p < 0.001) as well as a negative effect on COVID-19 stress (p = 0.031). Our findings also indicated that SCC exerted a negative effect on COVID-19 stress (p < 0.001). Regular participation in physical activity and strong SCC are also fundamental elements for alleviating COVID-19 stress. Given these results, state and local governments and educational institutions should encourage youth to participate in sports by suggesting policies, providing guidelines, and offering education. Such information may allow adolescents to endure and overcome COVID-19 stress during this critical period of life.

Physical Activity Is Associated With Lower Long-Term Incidence of Anxiety in a Population-Based, Large-Scale Study

Physical activity may prevent anxiety, but the importance of exercise intensity, sex-specific mechanisms, and duration of the effects remains largely unknown. We used an observational study design to follow 395,369 individuals for up to 21 years to investigate if participation in an ultralong-distance cross-country ski race (Vasaloppet, up to 90 km) was associated with a lower risk of developing anxiety. Skiers in the race and matched non-skiers from the general population were studied after participation in the race using the Swedish population and patient registries. Skiers (n = 197,685, median age 36 years, 38% women) had a significantly lower risk of developing anxiety during the follow-up compared to non-skiers (adjusted hazard ratio, HR 0.42). However, among women, higher physical performance (measured as the finishing time to complete the race, a proxy for higher exercise dose) was associated with an increased risk of anxiety compared to slower skiing women (HR 2.00). For men, the finishing time of the race did not significantly impact the risk of anxiety. Our results support the recommendations of engaging in physical activity to decrease the risk of anxiety in both men and women. The impact of physical performance level on the risk of anxiety requires further investigations among women.

The Differential Role of Coping, Physical Activity, and Mindfulness in College Student Adjustment

Research has examined the function of stress management techniques, including coping, physical activity, and mindfulness on college students’ adjustment. The present study examined the differential contributions of three stress management techniques to students’ maladaptation (perceived stress, depression, anxiety, and loneliness) and adaptation (self-esteem). Undergraduate students (N = 1185) responded to an online survey. Hierarchical linear regression results indicated that all three stress management techniques – coping, physical activity, and mindfulness – were related to the five outcomes as predicted. Higher levels of disengagement coping strategies were related to higher perceived stress, anxiety, and depression. Components of mindfulness emerged as a strong predictor of adaptation.

Effects of winter skiing on stress, heart rate, apprehension, and enjoyment in collegiate students: a single randomized controlled trial

This study investigated the effect of winter skiing on stress levels in collegiate students and also observed psychological factors related to heart rate, apprehension, and enjoyment. Two hundred thirty-eight male students were randomly classified into the control group (n=117) or the ski group (n=121). The control group received lectures on skiing; however, the ski group received practical ski training. Psychological measures included stress, apprehension, and enjoyment; physical measures included heart rate at pre- and postday. There were significant correlations between stress and apprehension (r=0.366) and stress and enjoyment (r=−0.441). Specifically, apprehension negatively correlated with enjoyment (r=−0.599). Between both groups, a significant interaction effect was found among stress, apprehension, and enjoyment. Moreover, compared with the control group, the ski group’s stress and apprehension were significantly reduced, whereas the enjoyment was significantly enhanced. This study suggests that winter skiing is a suitable sport for reducing stress and providing a high level of enjoyment for collegiate students.

Stress and Health Outcomes: Do Meaningful Work and Physical Activity Help?

The negative effects of stress and burnout on mental and physical health are widely known, as are the beneficial effects of physical activity. While the organizational literature emphasizes the value of meaningful work for employers and employees alike, the stress-buffering role of meaningful work in combination with physical activity is not known. The present study examined the (a) mediating role of burnout in the relationships between perceived stress and health risk behaviors (i.e., poor diet, tobacco use, and alcohol use) and depressive symptoms and (b) moderating roles of meaningful work and physical activity on the relationships between perceived stress and health outcomes. Participants were 229 employed adults. Perceived stress predicted physical health risk behaviors and depressive symptoms, but the direct and indirect negative effects of stress were stronger when meaningful work scores were lower. Findings offer support for the development of interventions that include enhancing work meaningfulness.

Negative Life Events and Cognitive Performance in a Population of Older Adults

Objectives: This study examined the association between negative life events in the past year and cognitive performance in a population of older adults. Methods: Secondary data analysis was conducted on 428 participants from the Charlotte County Healthy Aging Study. Participants completed tests of episodic memory, attention, and psychomotor speed and endorsed the presence and severity of 24 life events. Life events were examined in the aggregate as well as individually. Results: Hierarchical multiple regression results suggest no significant relationship between the aggregate frequency and severity measures of negative life events and cognitive performance. At the individual-event level, individuals who experienced the injury or illness of a friend during the past year and rated it as having more of an effect on their lives performed better on all three cognitive tasks. However, individuals who reported having less money to live on over the past year and rated the event as having more of an effect on their lives performed more poorly on the psychomotor speed tasks. Discussion: The findings support previous research indicating that using estimates of individual stressors rather than aggregate stress measures increases the predictive validity of stress measurement. Furthermore, the individual negative life events can have both a positive and a negative effect, which nullify one another when using the sum score of events.

Relationship among stress, depression, cardiovascular and metabolic changes and physical exercise

Abstract Introduction: Stress is considered one of the most significant health problems in modern society. It can be characterized as any changes in the homeostasis of an individual that require an adaptive response. An imbalance in the secretion of the primary stress mediators may be responsible for the onset and development of several diseases. Thus, chronic stress has been recognized as a risk factor for depression as well as cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Given the pathophysiological mechanisms associated with chronic stress and related cardiovascular and metabolic changes, it is necessary to implement measures to prevent, control and/or avoid their development. Physical exercise is a non-pharmacological resource that is widely used for this purpose. Its beneficial effects include the improvement of the emotional state as well as lipid and glycemic control. Objective: The aim of this review is to discuss the relationship between stress, depression, cardiovascular and metabolic changes, and highlight the importance of physical exercise in the prevention and treatment of resulting disorders. Materials and Methods: We searched MEDLINE and SCIELO from 2000 through 2012, using the terms chronic stress, mood disorders, depression, cardiovascular and metabolic changes, and exercise. Results: Most of the studies found in our literature search have shown that exercise can attenuate and/or reverse the deleterious effects of chronic stress. Conclusion: Regular physical exercise is useful for maintaining health, especially with respect to improving mood and mental stress.

Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not

The ‘Executive Functions’ (EFs) of inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility enable us to think before we act, resist temptations or impulsive reactions, stay focused, reason, problem-solve, flexibly adjust to changed demands or priorities, and see things from new and different perspectives. These skills are critical for success in all life's aspects and are sometimes more predictive than even IQ or socioeconomic status. Understandably, there is great interest in improving EFs. It's now clear they can be improved at any age through training and practice, much as physical exercise hones physical fitness. However, despite claims to the contrary, wide transfer does not seem to occur and ‘mindless’ aerobic exercise does little to improve EFs. Important questions remain: How much can EFs be improved (are benefits only superficial) and how long can benefits be sustained? What are the best methods for improving EFs? What about an approach accounts for its success? Do the answers to these differ by individual characteristics such as age or gender? Since stress, sadness, loneliness, or poor health impair EFs, and the reverse enhances EFs, we predict that besides directly train EFs, the most successful approaches for improving EFs will also address emotional, social, and physical needs.

Aerobic exercise, ball sports, dancing, and weight lifting as moderators of the relationship between stress and depressive symptoms: an exploratory cross-sectional study with swiss university students

This exploratory study was designed to compare four types of exercise activities in Swiss university students. A sample of 201 medical students (136 women, 65 men; M age = 23.2 yr., SD = 2.4) and 250 exercise and health sciences students (144 women, 106 men; M age = 22.3 yr., SD = 2.2) participated in the study. They completed the Perceived Stress Scale, the Depression Scale, and the Office in Motion Questionnaire. Interaction effects between stress and exercise activities were analysed using hierarchical regression analyses, after controlling for age, sex, and academic discipline. Frequent participation in ball sports and dancing were associated with decreased depressive symptoms among students with elevated perceived stress, whereas no such relationship existed among their peers with lower perceived stress. No stress-moderating effect was found for aerobic exercise. Weight lifting was only associated with lower depressive symptoms among students with low perceived stress. The present findings suggest that, among Swiss university students, certain exercises may have better potential to moderate the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms than others. Future research could analyze whether personalized exercise programs created to satisfy participants' individual needs are more beneficial for stress management.

School sport participation during adolescence and mental health in early adulthood

PURPOSE

This longitudinal study examined the association between participation in school sport during adolescence and mental health in early adulthood.

METHODS

Adolescents (n = 853) reported participation in school sport in each grade throughout the 5 years of secondary school. In early adulthood, participants reported depressive symptoms, level of stress, and self-rated mental health.

RESULTS

Involvement in school sport during adolescence was a statistically significant predictor of lower depression symptoms, lower perceived stress, and higher self-rated mental health in young adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS

School sport participation may protect against poor mental health in early adulthood. Policies to increase school sport participation may be warranted as part of public health strategies to promote mental health.

Lower cumulative stress is associated with better health for physically active adults in the community

Both cumulative adversity, an individual's lifetime exposure to stressors, and insufficient exercise are associated with poor health outcomes. The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether exercise buffers the association of cumulative adverse life events (CALE) with health in a community-wide sample of healthy adults (ages 18-50 years; women: n = 219, 29.5 ± 9.2 years; men: n = 176, 29.4 ± 8.7 years, mean ± standard deviation). Participants underwent the Cumulative Adversity Interview, which divides life events into three subsets: major life events (MLE), recent life events (RLE) and traumatic experiences (TLE). These individuals also completed the Cornell Medical Index and a short assessment for moderate or greater intensity exercise behavior, modified from the Nurses' Health Study. Results indicated that higher CALE was associated with greater total health problems (r = 0.431, p < 0.001). Interactions between stress and exercise were not apparent for RLE and TLE. However, at low levels of MLE, greater exercise was related to fewer total, physical, cardiovascular and psychological health problems (p value <0.05). Conversely, at high levels of MLE, the benefits of exercise appear to be absent. Three-way interactions were observed between sex, exercise and stress. Increased levels of exercise were related to better physical health in men, at all levels of CALE. Only women who reported both low levels of CALE and high levels of exercise had more favorable physical health outcomes. A similar pattern of results emerged for RLE. Together, these data suggest that increased exercise is related to better health, but these effects may vary by cumulative stress exposure and sex.

The effects of stress on physical activity and exercise

BACKGROUND

Psychological stress and physical activity (PA) are believed to be reciprocally related; however, most research examining the relationship between these constructs is devoted to the study of exercise and/or PA as an instrument to mitigate distress.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this paper was to review the literature investigating the influence of stress on indicators of PA and exercise.

METHODS

A systematic search of Web of Science, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus was employed to find all relevant studies focusing on human participants. Search terms included "stress", "exercise", and "physical activity". A rating scale (0-9) modified for this study was utilized to assess the quality of all studies with multiple time points.

RESULTS

The literature search found 168 studies that examined the influence of stress on PA. Studies varied widely in their theoretical orientation and included perceived stress, distress, life events, job strain, role strain, and work-family conflict but not lifetime cumulative adversity. To more clearly address the question, prospective studies (n = 55) were considered for further review, the majority of which indicated that psychological stress predicts less PA (behavioral inhibition) and/or exercise or more sedentary behavior (76.4 %). Both objective (i.e., life events) and subjective (i.e., distress) measures of stress related to reduced PA. Prospective studies investigating the effects of objective markers of stress nearly all agreed (six of seven studies) that stress has a negative effect on PA. This was true for research examining (a) PA at periods of objectively varying levels of stress (i.e., final examinations vs. a control time point) and (b) chronically stressed populations (e.g., caregivers, parents of children with a cancer diagnosis) that were less likely to be active than controls over time. Studies examining older adults (>50 years), cohorts with both men and women, and larger sample sizes (n > 100) were more likely to show an inverse association. 85.7 % of higher-quality prospective research (≥ 7 on a 9-point scale) showed the same trend. Interestingly, some prospective studies (18.2 %) report evidence that PA was positively impacted by stress (behavioral activation). This should not be surprising as some individuals utilize exercise to cope with stress. Several other factors may moderate stress and PA relationships, such as stages of change for exercise. Habitually active individuals exercise more in the face of stress, and those in beginning stages exercise less. Consequently, stress may have a differential impact on exercise adoption, maintenance, and relapse. Preliminary evidence suggests that combining stress management programming with exercise interventions may allay stress-related reductions in PA, though rigorous testing of these techniques has yet to be produced.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the majority of the literature finds that the experience of stress impairs efforts to be physically active. Future work should center on the development of a theory explaining the mechanisms underlying the multifarious influences of stress on PA behaviors.

An examination of stress in college students over the course of a semester

The purpose of this study was to determine whether differing stress reduction interventions could alter stress levels experienced by male and female college students from the beginning to the end of a semester. Components of stress examined included overall perceived stress, test anxiety, and personal burnout. Participants (N = 531) were part of courses that during the course of a 16-week semester focused specifically on cognitive-behavioral stress management, cardiovascular fitness, generalized physical activity, or a control with no intervention. In addition to gender differences, both the stress management and physical activity groups had significantly lower levels of perceived stress, test anxiety, and personal burnout at the end of the semester. The fitness group scored significantly lower on perceived stress and personal burnout, but there was no difference in scores for test anxiety. The important ramifications of reducing stress in college students are discussed, including the pros and cons of implementing differing physical and psychological intervention modalities.

Cardiorespiratory fitness protects against stress-related symptoms of burnout and depression

OBJECTIVE

To examine how cardiorespiratory fitness and self-perceived stress are associated with burnout and depression. To determine if any relationship between stress and burnout/depression is mitigated among participants with high fitness levels.

METHODS

197 participants (51% men, mean age=39.2 years) took part in the study. The Åstrand bicycle test was used to assess cardorespiratory fitness. Burnout was measured with the Shirom-Melamed Burnout Questionnaire (SMBQ), depressive symptoms with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HAD-D). A gender-matched stratified sample was used to ensure that participants with varying stress levels were equally represented.

RESULTS

Participants with moderate and high fitness reported fewer symptoms of burnout and depression than participants with low fitness. Individuals with high stress who also had moderate or high fitness levels reported lower scores on the SMBQ Tension subscale and the HAD-D than individuals with high stress, but low fitness levels.

CONCLUSION

Better cardiovascular fitness seems to be associated with decreased symptoms of burnout and a better capacity to cope with stress.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Promoting and measuring cardiorespiratory fitness can motivate employees to adopt a more physically active lifestyle and thus strengthen their ability to cope with stress exposure and stress-related disorders.

Life Balance and Perceived Stress: Predictors and Demographic Profile

This article explored differences in life balance scores between demographic groups and whether life balance predicted perceived stress. This research used secondary analysis of 1,048 subjects from a database for the Life Balance Inventory (LBI). Analysis of variance showed that the profile of people with the highest total life balance scores was: white, 61 years or older, earned a master's degree, had incomes between $81,000 and $100,000, lived in the suburbs, had two children (but the children were not at home), were not working (if working, they were self-employed), owned a home, and lived in the United States. Other demographic groups differed in their LBI subscale scores. Regression analysis showed that life balance scores predicted lower perceived stress scores. This research provides additional construct validity evidence for the LBI and its associated Life Balance Model.

Sportaktivität als Stresspuffer

Zusammenfassung: Die Rolle des Sports als Strategie der Stressregulation ist noch wenig systematisch erforscht. Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird die sog. „Stresspuffer-Hypothese der Sportaktivität“ genauer geprüft. Sie besagt, dass Sportaktivität die negativen Auswirkungen von Stress auf die Gesundheit „abzupuffern“ vermag. Bis heute ist diese Hypothese noch nicht überzeugend empirisch belegt, vor allem mangelt es an längsschnittlicher und experimenteller Evidenz. In der vorliegenden Studie wird die Stresspuffer-Hypothese sowohl quer- als auch längsschnittlich überprüft: N = 427 Angestellte machten an zwei Messzeitpunkten im Abstand von zehn Monaten Angaben zu ihrer seelischen Gesundheit, ihrem arbeitsbedingten Stresserleben und ihrer Sportaktivität. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen den Stresspuffereffekt auf der Ebene der Querschnittsanalysen – bei Betrachtung des aktuellen Stresserlebens und des aktuellen Sporttreibens – nur teilweise, auf der Ebene der Längsschnittanalysen – bei Betrachtung des chronischen Stresserlebens und des chronischen Sporttreibens – dagegen in vollem Umfang. Die Befunde deuten darauf hin, dass das habituelle Sportverhalten insbesondere bei zeitlich andauernden Stressbedingungen seine gesundheitsprotektive Wirkung zu entfalten vermag.

The different roles of perceived stress in the association between older adults' physical activity and physical health

OBJECTIVE

This 4-year longitudinal study examined the different roles of perceived stress in the association between older adults' physical activities and physical health. We hypothesized that physical activities would exert beneficial effects on physical health by preventing chronically high levels of perceived stress.

METHODS

We assessed baseline levels of physical activities and repeated measures of perceived stress and physical symptoms in 3 waves of data from a sample of 157 older adults.

RESULTS

Among participants with high (but not low) baseline levels of perceived stress, physical activity predicted a 2-year reduction of perceived stress and a 4-year prevention of physical health symptoms. Moreover, the interaction effect on 4-year changes in physical symptoms was mediated by 2-year changes in perceived stress.

CONCLUSIONS

Physical health benefits of physical activity are particularly pronounced among older adults who perceive high levels of stress, and this effect is mediated by a prevention of chronically high perceptions of stress.

Aquatic-Aerobic Exercise as a Means of Stress Reduction during Pregnancy

The goals of this research were to explore the current literature regarding associations between psychological stress and adverse fetal outcome, associations between aerobic exercise and psychological stress reduction, and associations between aerobic exercise and fetal outcome. The published studies that were located provide evidence of the following: 1) Stress reactivity increases physiologically during pregnancy, 2) pregnant women may experience additional stressors that are usually not experienced in a nonpregnant state, 3) psychological stress in pregnancy is associated with adverse fetal outcome, 4) exercise can be a method of stress reduction, 5) exercise in pregnancy is not associated with adverse fetal outcome, and 6) exercise in pregnancy may provide benefit to the fetus. Data were analyzed from an original study and associations were reported between psychological stress-management activities and participation in aquatic aerobic exercise classes. No reports were available investigating an exercise-induced reduction in psychological stress with fetal outcome.

Physical activity buffers the effects of family conflict on depressed mood: a study on adolescent girls and boys

This paper investigates the relationship between physical activity and depressed mood, under conditions of family conflict. We analyze data from a representative sample of 7,232 Icelandic adolescents. Analysis of variance was carried out to test for main and interaction effects. The study shows that while family conflict increases the likelihood of depressed mood, among adolescents, physical activity decreases the likelihood of depressed mood. Furthermore, physical activity plays a more important role among those adolescents living in aversive circumstances, than other adolescents, as family conflict and physical activity interact in the effect on depressed mood for adolescents living in such circumstances. The findings highlight the role of physical activity in decreasing mental distress among adolescents, especially those living in aversive circumstances at home.

A prospective study of leisure-time physical activity and mental health in Swedish health care workers and social insurance officers

OBJECTIVE

This study analyzes longitudinal associations between self-reported leisure-time physical activity (PA) and perceived stress, burnout and symptoms of depression and anxiety.

METHOD

Cohort data collected in 2004 and 2006 from health care and social insurance workers in western Sweden (2694 women; 420 men) were analyzed. Cox regression was conducted to examine associations between baseline levels of PA and mental health (MH) problems 2 years later.

RESULTS

Cross-sectional analysis show that individuals reporting either light physical activity (LPA) or moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were less likely to report high levels of perceived stress, burnout and symptoms of depression and anxiety, as compared to individuals reporting a sedentary lifestyle. The risks of symptoms of depression, burnout, and high stress levels at follow-up were significantly lower for those reporting LPA or MVPA at baseline. For symptoms of anxiety, an activity level corresponding to MVPA was required.

CONCLUSION

Participation in PA appeared to lower the risk of developing MH problems two years later. This relationship involved LPA and MVPA regarding feelings of depression, burnout and perceived stress, and exclusively MVPA regarding feelings of anxiety. The implications of these findings are important, as preventive strategies for psychosocial stress and mental health problems are needed.

Review article: do exercise and fitness protect against stress-induced health complaints? A review of the literature

BACKGROUND

Understanding how exercise influences health is important in designing public health interventions. At present, evidence suggests that there is a positive relationship between exercise and health. However, whether this relationship is partly due to the stress-moderating impact of exercise has been less frequently investigated although more and more people are taxed by stressful life circumstances.

METHODS

A comprehensive review of studies testing the potential of exercise as a stress-buffer was conducted (including literature from 1982 to 2008). The findings are based on a narrative review method. Specific criteria were taken into account to evaluate causality of the evidence.

RESULTS

About half of the studies reported at least partly supportive results in the sense that people with high exercise levels exhibit less health problems when they encounter stress. The causality analyses show that stress-moderation effects were consistently found in different samples and with different methodological approaches. Although more support results from cross-sectional studies, exercise-based stress-buffer effects were also found in prospective, longitudinal and quasi-experimental investigations.

CONCLUSIONS

This review underscores the relevance of exercise as a public health resource. Recommendations are provided for future research. More prospective and experimental studies are needed to provide insight into how much exercise is necessary to trigger stress-buffer effects. Furthermore, more information is warranted to conclude which sort of exercise has the strongest impact on the stress-illness-relationship.

Physical activity, exercise coping, and depression in a 10-year cohort study of depressed patients

BACKGROUND

Epidemiological research examining the relationship between physical activity and depression has been conducted almost exclusively with community samples. We examined associations between physical activity, exercise coping, and depression in a sample of initially depressed patients, using four waves of data spanning 10 years.

METHODS

A cohort (n=424) of depressed adults completed measures of physical activity, exercise coping, depression, and other demographic and psychosocial constructs at baseline, 1-year, 4-years, and 10-years, with a 90% wave-to-wave retention rate. Multilevel modeling was used to analyze individual depression trajectories.

RESULTS

More physical activity was associated with less concurrent depression, even after controlling for gender, age, medical problems, and negative life events. Physical activity counteracted the effects of medical conditions and negative life events on depression. However, physical activity was not associated with subsequent depression. The findings for exercise coping were comparable.

LIMITATIONS

Measures of physical activity and exercise coping encompassed a limited set of activities and did not include information about duration or intensity.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that more physical activity is associated with reduced concurrent depression. In addition, it appears that physical activity may be especially helpful in the context of medical problems and major life stressors. Clinically, encouraging depressed patients to engage in physical activity is likely to have potential benefits with few obvious risks.

Improvement of balance between work stress and recovery after a body awareness program for chronic aspecific psychosomatic symptoms

OBJECTIVE

A 3-day residential body awareness program (BAP) was developed to teach people with chronic aspecific psychosomatic symptoms (CAPS) to react adequately to disturbances of the balance between a daily workload and the capacity to deal with it. The long-term effects of the program in improving the balance between work stress and recovery are presented in this study. The intervening effect of 'improved balance' on quality of life is also analysed.

METHODS

A pre-post design is used with post-measures at 2 and 12 months after the program, without controls (n = 122). Mean age is 42.5 years (S.D. = 9.0) and 60% of participants are female.

RESULTS

The results show participants become more active physically and socially, and at the same time take the opportunity to recover. There was a difference measured in changing balance for participants who are fully employed and participants who are not working or are working part-time due to health problems: the second group reintegrated into work, the first group spent more time socialising inside the family. Personal goals are realised by 85% of the participants. Realising personal goals and becoming more active is a mediating factor for increasing quality of life. The majority of the measured changes can be interpreted as clinically relevant outcomes with medium-to-large effect sizes. Spouses of the participants also confirm these effects.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Evaluation of the BAP gives evidence to conclude that this program leads to long-term effects in CAPS. Participants react more adequately to disturbances between daily workload and the capacity to deal with this load. Two and 12 months after the 3-day program, they changed their behaviour to a more active lifestyle and increased self-management in coping with stress and psychosomatic symptoms.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

By paying more attention to the balance between work stress and recovery, patient educators may be able to increase their effectiveness. Personal goal realization can be effective in guiding people by getting them out of the negative spiral.

The long-term lasting effectiveness on self-efficacy, attribution style, expression of emotions and quality of life of a body awareness program for chronic a-specific psychosomatic symptoms

OBJECTIVE

A 3-day residential body awareness program (BAP) was developed to teach people with chronic a-specific psychosomatic symptoms (CAPS) to react adequately to disturbances of the balance between a daily workload and the capacity to deal with it. The long-term effects of the program on body awareness, psychological factors, psychosomatic symptoms and quality of life for people with CAPS are presented in this study.

METHODS

A pre-post design is used with post-measures 2 and 12 months after the program, without controls (n = 122). Mean age is 42.5 (S.D. = 9.0) and 60% is female.

RESULTS

The results showed an increase of body awareness, self-efficacy, expression of emotions and quality of life. Stress-related symptoms decreased and the attribution style was found to be less depressive. Participants achieved significantly higher levels of functioning at 2 months which increased significantly more at 12 months. The majority of the measured changes can be interpreted as clinically relevant outcomes with medium-to-large effect sizes. Spouses of the participants also confirm the found effects.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Evaluation of the BAP gives evidence to conclude that this program leads to the theoretically expected long-term effects in CAPS. Participants react more adequately to disturbances between daily workload and the capacity to deal with this load. Two and 12 months after the 3-day program, they are more capable of self-management in coping with stress and psychosomatic symptoms.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

This article sheds new light on the difficulties that individuals with psychosomatic symptoms and their professional interventionists encounter when attempting to manage the chronicity of the problems. By paying more attention to learning self-management by increasing body awareness and self-efficacy, patient educators may be able to increase their effectiveness.

Effects of recreational physical activity and back exercises on low back pain and psychological distress: findings from the UCLA Low Back Pain Study

OBJECTIVES

We sought to estimate the effects of recreational physical activity and back exercises on low back pain, related disability, and psychological distress among patients randomized to chiropractic or medical care in a managed care setting.

METHODS

Low back pain patients (n=681) were randomized and followed for 18 months. Participation in recreational physical activities, use of back exercises, and low back pain, related disability, and psychological distress were measured at baseline, at 6 weeks, and at 6, 12, and 18 months. Multivariate logistic regression modeling was used to estimate adjusted associations of physical activity and back exercises with concurrent and subsequent pain, disability, and psychological distress.

RESULTS

Participation in recreational physical activities was inversely associated--both cross-sectionally and longitudinally--with low back pain, related disability, and psychological distress. By contrast, back exercise was positively associated--both cross-sectionally and longitudinally--with low back pain and related disability.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that individuals with low back pain should refrain from specific back exercises and instead focus on nonspecific physical activities to reduce pain and improve psychological health.

Outcome expectations that motivate physical activity among world senior games participants

This study validates a questionnaire which examines the role of selected outcome expectations from physical activity on motivating regular physical activity among a group of older adults. Data were obtained from a cross-sectional survey of 675 participants in the 2002 World Senior Games. Factor analysis identified four clusters among 14 outcome expectation items, which were labeled Recreation and Social, Physical Health, Mental Health, and Self-image. The percentage agreeing that the selected items motivated physical activity were calculated and ranked from 1 (high) to 14 (low). The average ranking in each of the four factors was 4.7 for Recreation and Social, 5.8 for Physical Health, 10.5 for Self-image, and 11.7 for Mental Health. The ranks of items did not significantly differ across categories of sex, age, marital status, education, smoking, alcohol drinking, and disease history. However, the ranking did significantly differ between individuals who considered themselves to be physically active versus sedentary. Physically active individuals were most likely to agree that recreational enjoyment or fun motivated physical activity, whereas sedentary individuals were most likely to agree that improving the quality of life motivated physical activity.

Physical activity buffers the effects of chronic stress on adiposity in youth

BACKGROUND

The moderating effect of physical activity (PA) on relations between chronic stress and adiposity is unknown in youth.

PURPOSE

The objective is to assess the mediating effect of PA on relations between stress and adiposity in youth.

METHODS

Participants were 303 youths (47% Black, 53% White, 50% male, M age = 16.6 years). The Adolescent Resource Challenge Scale assessed personal stress, whereas median rent or mortgage in the neighborhood reflected community stress. Body mass index (BMI) and sum of skinfolds reflected general adiposity, and waist circumference measured central adiposity. Days per week performing PA sufficient to work up a sweat measured PA.

RESULTS

Hierarchical regressions predicted each adiposity measure adjusting for age, race, gender, family socioeconomic status, and parental smoking. Independent contributions of personal stress, but not community stress, were found on BMI and sum of skinfolds. A similar model showed that both personal and community stress predicted waist circumference. PA was independently, inversely associated with sum of skinfolds but not BMI or waist circumference. The interaction between PA and personal stress predicted all three adiposity measures. The interaction of PA with community stress predicted BMI.

CONCLUSIONS

PA appears to buffer the effects of chronic stress on adiposity, providing evidence that PA is a protective factor for health.

The short-term effects of a body awareness program: better self-management of health problems for individuals with chronic a-specific psychosomatic symptoms

A three-day residential Body Awareness Program (BAP) was developed to teach people with Chronic A-specific Psychosomatic Symptoms (CAPS) to react adequately to disturbances of the balance between a daily workload and the capacity to deal with it. The short-term effects of the program for people with CAPS are presented in this study. The design is a non-control group design with pre- and post-measures (2 months after the program). The sample for this paper was formed by 187 participants. The mean age is 42.3 (S.D. = 8.9), and 57% is female. The results showed decreased stress-related symptoms, increased quality of life, increased self-efficacy, less depressive attribution style, more expression of emotions, and a positive change of lifestyle. Most of these measured changes can be interpreted as clinically relevant outcomes with medium-to-large effect sizes. Personal pre-training goals were attained by 85% of the participants. Spouses also confirmed the found effects. Evaluation of the BAP gives enough evidence to conclude that this program leads to positive effects in CAPS. Participants react more adequately to disturbances between daily workload and the capacity to deal with this load. They are more capable of self-management in coping with stress and psychosomatic symptoms. Conclusions are drawn about the prevention by early interventions for patients with a-specific physical symptoms.

Quality of life intervention for prostate cancer patients: design and baseline characteristics of the active for life after cancer trial

Prostate cancer patients receiving androgen ablation therapy experience significant physical and psychological sequelae associated with their disease and treatment. Because physical activity improves physical and psychological well-being, a lifestyle physical activity intervention may help slow or reverse the associated decline in quality of life (QOL). No studies have evaluated an intervention to improve multiple QOL domains in patients receiving androgen ablation therapy. Active for Life After Cancer is a three-group randomized controlled trial designed to evaluate the effectiveness of a lifestyle physical activity intervention (Lifestyle Program) in improving QOL. The Lifestyle Program, a 6-month behavioral skills training group, is compared to an Educational Support Program and Standard Care. The purpose of this paper is to describe the design of the randomized trial and present baseline data that will characterize the QOL of the sample. Challenges to recruitment for the trial also will be presented and discussed.

Relieving the pressure? The role of physical activity in the relationship between school-related stress and adolescent health complaints

The present study includes a Norwegian sample of 15-year-old students (N = 1,670) and is part of a World Health Organization cross-national survey, Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (Currie, 1998). The objective was to examine the relationship between school-related stress, leisure time physical activity, and adolescent health complaints. Physical activity was also examined as a moderating variable in the relationship between school-related stress and health complaints. The results showed that high levels of complaints were associated in a linear relationship with high levels of school-related stress and low levels of leisure time physical activity. Reports of complaints were more closely related to stress for adolescents with low levels of physical activity; thus, physical activity seems to moderate the relationship between school-related stress and health complaints.

Do asthma and physical inactivity influence the associations of personal and job stressors with perceived stress and depression? Findings from the 1998-1999 California Work and Health Survey

PURPOSE

The purpose of the study is to estimate the associations of personal and job stressors with perceived stress and depression, and to determine if these associations are modified by asthma and physical inactivity.

METHODS

Data from 2,902 adult respondents of the 1998-1999 California Work and Health Survey (CWHS) were used. The CWHS included items on asthma, exercise, personal stressors, psychological and physical job demands, and perceived stress and depression. Multivariable logistic regression modeling was used to estimate cross-sectional and longitudinal associations.

RESULTS

The estimated joint effects of high stressor scores and asthma on stress are compatible with greater than multiplicative effects in both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Asthma did not appear to modify stressor-depression associations, and physical inactivity modified neither stressor-stress nor stressor-depression associations. Among the employed, the cross-sectional joint effects of personal stressors and physical inactivity on stress and depression are compatible with greater than multiplicative effects, as are the effects of low decision latitude and asthma on perceived stress.

CONCLUSIONS

Asthma and physical inactivity may augment the effects of stressors, suggesting that the increasing prevalence of asthma may contribute to greater stress perception and depression, and that exercise may ameliorate these conditions by dampening stressor effects.