Characterization of the peroxiredoxin 1 subfamily from Tetrahymena thermophila

Transcriptome analysis of Tetrahymena thermophila response to exposure with dihydroartemisinin

Dihydroartemisinin (DHA) is a derivative of artemisinin and is toxic to parasites. We used the Tetrahymena thermophila (T. thermophila) as a model to explore DHA toxicity. Results showed that low concentration of DHA (20 μmol/L) promoted cell proliferation, whereas high concentrations of DHA (40-1280 μmol/L) inhibited that. Appearance of nucleus was pycnosis by laser scanning confocal microscope. DHA significantly elevated activities of SOD and GSH-Px (P < 0.01) and MDA was markedly increased at high level but decreased at low level (P < 0.01). Further results of transcriptome in T. thermophila treated with different concentration DHA group (0, 20, 160 μmol/L) showed that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were involved in oxidation-reduction and metabolism of exogenous substances indicated oxidative stress stimulation. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes showed that DEGs were involved in the cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism of exogenous substances, glutathione metabolism and ABC transport. Remarkably, DNA replication was significantly enriched in low concentration DHA, energy metabolism related pathways and necrotic process were considerably enriched in high concentration DHA. The results of RT-qPCR of 13 DEGs were the same as that of transcriptome, in which the expression of GST and GPx family genes were significantly altered after exposed to high-DHA group. DHA induced oxidative stress damage through disturbing with energy. However, detoxification pathways in T. thermophila to resist oxidative damage and cell alleviated low concentration DHA stress by regulating antioxidant enzyme. This study provides good practice on pharmacological mechanism of artemisinin-based drugs in antiparasitic.

Typical 2-Cys Peroxiredoxins as a Defense Mechanism against Metal-Induced Oxidative Stress in the Solitary Ascidian Ciona robusta

Typical 2-Cys peroxiredoxins (2-Cys Prdxs) are proteins with antioxidant properties belonging to the thioredoxin peroxidase family. With their peroxidase activity, they contribute to the homeostatic control of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and, therefore, participate in various physiological functions, such as cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Although Prdxs have been shown to be potential biomarkers for monitoring aquatic environments, minimal scientific attention has been devoted to describing their molecular architecture and function in marine invertebrates. Our study aims to clarify the protective role against stress induced by exposure to metals (Cu, Zn, and Cd) of three Prdxs (Prdx2, Prdx3, and Prdx4) in the solitary ascidian Ciona robusta, an invertebrate chordate. Here, we report a detailed pre- and post-translational regulation of the three Prdx isoforms. Data on intestinal mRNA expression, provided by qRT-PCR analyses, show a generalized increase for Prdx2, -3, and -4, which is correlated to metal accumulation. Furthermore, the increase in tissue enzyme activity observed after Zn exposure is slower than that observed with Cu and Cd. The obtained results increase our knowledge of the evolution of anti-stress proteins in invertebrates and emphasize the importance of the synthesis of Prdxs as an efficient way to face adverse environmental conditions.

Epigenetic effects of silver nanoparticles and ionic silver in Tetrahymena thermophila

The widespread use of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) has raised substantial health risks, but little is known about the epigenetic toxicity induced by Ag⁺ and Ag NPs. This study characterized physiological and lncRNA profiles to explore the toxic effects and epigenetic mechanisms in Tetrahymena thermophila on exposure to Ag⁺ (in the form of AgNO₃) and different Ag NPs for 24 h. The Ag NPs studied varied in size (10 nm and 80 nm) and surface coating (citrate and polyvinylpyrrolidone). We found that both Ag⁺ and Ag NPs elicited strong growth-inhibiting effects on T. thermophila. The toxicity was mainly caused by high reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, leading to lipid peroxidation and mitochondrial dysfunction. To combat the oxidative stress, the protist activated an antioxidative response, increasing the activity of glutathione peroxidase and other antioxidants. Notably, 1250 lncRNAs were differentially expressed under Ag⁺ or Ag NPs exposure relative to the non-exposure control, which were clustered into 15 expression modules in weighted gene co-expression network analysis. These gene modules exhibited toxicant-specific expression patterns, potentially playing regulatory roles, via their co-expressed mRNAs, to inhibit cell growth, activate cell membrane cation channel, and promote oxidoreductase activity. This research illuminates how post-transcriptional mechanisms of a ciliated protozoan regulate responses to Ag⁺ and Ag NPs toxicities.

Stress granules in Ciona robusta: First evidences of TIA-1-related nucleolysin and tristetraprolin gene expression under metal exposure

Stress granules are non-membranous cytoplasmic foci, composed of non-translating messenger ribonucleoproteins, translational initiation factors and other additional proteins. They represent a primary mechanism to rapidly modulate gene expression when cells are subjected to adverse environmental conditions. Very few works have been devoted to study the presence of the molecular components of stress granules in invertebrates. In this work, we characterized the transcript sequences for two important protein components of stress granules, TIA-1-related nucleolysin (TIAR) and tristetraprolin (TTP), in the solitary ascidian Ciona robusta, an invertebrate chordate, and carried out the first studies on their gene expression under stress conditions induced by metals (Cu, Zn and Cd). Data on mRNA expression levels, provided by qRT-PCR analyses, show a generalized decrease at the second day of metal-exposure for both tiar and ttp, suggesting that metal accumulation induces acute stress and the inhibition of the transcription for the two studied proteins. In-situ hybridization analyses demonstrate that TIAR and TTP antisense riboprobes recognize circulating granular amoebocytes in the hemolymph, in both blood lacunae and tunic. The results obtained in this work increase our knowledge on the evolution of anti-stress proteins in metazoans and emphasize the importance of the transcription of tiar and ttp, which represents an efficient physiological response allowing organisms to survive in the environment under stress conditions.

Non-enzymatic antioxidant responses of Mytilus galloprovincialis: Insights into the physiological role against metal-induced oxidative stress

The exposure to metals is known to generate oxidative stress in living organisms, which can result in the induction of protective antioxidant defences, both enzymatic and non-enzymatic. This work aims to obtain new data on the existing links among several non-enzymatic components of the antioxidant system, that are physiologically related to both metal sequestration and defense against metal-induced oxidative stress, using the blue mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) as a model organism. Specimens of this marine bivalve were experimentally exposed to cadmium (Cd), used as oxidative stress inducer. Cd, metallothionein (MT), glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA) contents, and glutathione reductase (GR) activity in gills and in digestive glands were assessed at 0, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h. The obtained results provide new data about the relationships among the non-enzymatic antioxidant cellular components considered in this study. These constitute the prompt physiological responses to the oxidative stress in blue mussels exposed to Cd in controlled laboratory conditions.

PFAS Environmental Pollution and Antioxidant Responses: An Overview of the Impact on Human Field

Due to their unique properties, perfluorinated substances (PFAS) are widely used in multiple industrial and commercial applications, but they are toxic for animals, humans included. This review presents some available data on the PFAS environmental distribution in the world, and in particular in Europe and in the Veneto region of Italy, where it has become a serious problem for human health. The consumption of contaminated food and drinking water is considered one of the major source of exposure for humans. Worldwide epidemiological studies report the negative effects that PFAS have on human health, due to environmental pollution, including infertility, steroid hormone perturbation, thyroid, liver and kidney disorders, and metabolic disfunctions. In vitro and in vivo researches correlated PFAS exposure to oxidative stress effects (in mammals as well as in other vertebrates of human interest), produced by a PFAS-induced increase of reactive oxygen species formation. The cellular antioxidant defense system is activated by PFAS, but it is only partially able to avoid the oxidative damage to biomolecules.

Molecular Characterization, Protein-Protein Interaction Network, and Evolution of Four Glutathione Peroxidases from Tetrahymena thermophila

Glutathione peroxidases (GPxs) form a broad family of antioxidant proteins essential for maintaining redox homeostasis in eukaryotic cells. In this study, we used an integrative approach that combines bioinformatics, molecular biology, and biochemistry to investigate the role of GPxs in reactive oxygen species detoxification in the unicellular eukaryotic model organism Tetrahymena thermophila. Both phylogenetic and mechanistic empirical model analyses provided indications about the evolutionary relationships among the GPXs of Tetrahymena and the orthologous enzymes of phylogenetically related species. In-silico gene characterization and text mining were used to predict the functional relationships between GPxs and other physiologically-relevant processes. The GPx genes contain conserved transcriptional regulatory elements in the promoter region, which suggest that transcription is under tight control of specialized signaling pathways. The bioinformatic findings were next experimentally validated by studying the time course of gene transcription and enzymatic activity after copper (Cu) exposure. Results emphasize the role of GPxs in the detoxification pathways that, by complex regulation of GPx gene expression, enable Tethraymena to survive in high Cu concentrations and the associated redox environment.

Tetrahymena Glutathione Peroxidase Family: A Comparative Analysis of These Antioxidant Enzymes and Differential Gene Expression to Metals and Oxidizing Agents

In the present work, an extensive analysis of the putative glutathione peroxidases (GPx) of the eukaryotic microorganism model Tetrahymena thermophila is carried out. A comparative analysis with GPx present in other Tetrahymena species and other very taxonomically diverse ciliates is also performed. A majority of ciliate GPx have replaced the selenocysteine (Sec) by Cys in its catalytic center, so they can be considered as phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidases (PHGPx). Selenocysteine insertion sequence (SECIS) elements have been detected in several ciliate GPx that do not incorporate Sec in their amino acid sequences, and conversely, in other ciliate GPx with Sec, no SECIS elements are detected. These anomalies are analyzed and discussed. From the phylogenetic analysis using the ciliate GPx amino acid sequences, the existence of extensive intra- and interspecific gene duplications that produced multiple GPx isoforms in each species is inferred. The ancestral character of the selenoproteins is also corroborated. The analysis by qRT-PCR of six selected T. thermophila GPx genes has shown a quantitative differential expression between them, depending on the stressor (oxidizing agents, apoptotic inducer or metals) and the time of exposure.

Copper/Zinc Superoxide Dismutase from the Crocodile Icefish Chionodraco hamatus: Antioxidant Defense at Constant Sub-Zero Temperature

In the present study, we describe the purification and molecular characterization of Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD) from Chionodraco hamatus, an Antarctic teleost widely distributed in many areas of the Ross Sea that plays a pivotal role in the Antarctic food chain. The primary sequence was obtained using biochemical and molecular biology approaches and compared with Cu,Zn SODs from other organisms. Multiple sequence alignment using the amino acid sequence revealed that Cu,Zn SOD showed considerable sequence similarity with its orthologues from various vertebrate species, but also some specific substitutions directly linked to cold adaptation. Phylogenetic analyses presented the monophyletic status of Antartic Teleostei among the Perciformes, confirming the erratic differentiation of these proteins and concurring with the theory of the "unclock-like" behavior of Cu,Zn SOD evolution. Expression of C. hamatus Cu,Zn SOD at both the mRNA and protein levels were analyzed in various tissues, highlighting the regulation of gene expression related to environmental stress conditions and also animal physiology. The data presented are the first on the antioxidant enzymes of a fish belonging to the Channichthyidae family and represent an important starting point in understanding the antioxidant systems of these organisms that are subject to constant risk of oxidative stress.

Molecular characterization of novel mitochondrial peroxiredoxins from the Antarctic emerald rockcod and their gene expression in response to environmental warming

In the present study we describe the molecular characterization of the two paralogous mitochondrial peroxiredoxins from Trematomus bernacchii, a teleost that plays a pivotal role in the Antarctic food chain. The two putative amino acid sequences were compared with orthologs from other fish, highlighting a high percentage of identity and similarity with the respective variant, in particular for the residues that are essential for the characteristic peroxidase activity of these enzymes. The temporal expression of Prdx3 and Prdx5 mRNAs in response to short-term thermal stress showed a general upregulation of prdx3, suggesting that this isoform is the most affected by temperature increase. These data, together with the peculiar differences between the molecular structures of the two mitochondrial Prdxs in T. bernacchii as well as in the tropical species Stegastes partitus, suggest an adaptation that allowed these poikilothermic aquatic vertebrates to colonize very different environments, characterized by different temperature ranges.

Waterborne zinc induced lobe-dependent effect on oxidative stress and energy metabolism in hepatopancreas of Larimichthys crocea

The study aimed to compare differences in oxidative stress and energy metabolism between the left and right lobe of hepatopancreas in large yellow croaker Larimichthys crocea exposed to 0 (control), 20, and 100 μM Zn for 96 h. Tipical biomarkers were examined including the proportion of white hepatopancreas, lipid content, malondialdehyde (MDA) level, glutathione (GSH) content, activity levels of enzymes (Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase, Cu/Zn-SOD; catalase, CAT; glutathione peroxidase, GPx; glutathione reductase, GR; mitochondrial ATP synthase, F-ATPase; malate dehydrogenase, MDH; succinate dehydrogenase, SDH; hepatic lipase, HTGL; lipoprotein lipase, LPL), mRNA levels of genes encoding these enzymes (sod1, cat, gpx1a, gr, atp5b, mdh, sdh, htgl, and lpl), and gene expression of signaling molecules the NF-E2-related nuclear factor 2 (nrf2) and Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (keap1). A whitish color in the left lobe of hepatopancreas was observed in the control and Zn-exposed fish. Contrarily, the right lobe of hepatopancreas tended towards red with increasing Zn levels. The phenomenon was further confirmed by that lipid content was reduced in the right lobe and was not significantly affected in the left lobe by Zn. The right lobe showed higher energy consumption than the left lobe as reflected by the up-regulation of activity levels of HTGL, LPL, F-ATPase, MDH, and SDH. Lipid peroxidation declined by 20 μM Zn and was unchanged by 100 μM Zn in both lobes, which could be explained by increased activity levels of Cu/Zn-SOD and GPx. However, the magnitude of increase in Cu/Zn-SOD activity was greater in the right lobe than that in the left one. The difference in enzyme activity between two lobes may be involved in changes in mRNA levels of sod1, gr, atp5b, sdh, htgl, lpl, and nrf2, which was further confirmed by positive relationships between enzyme activity and gene expression. Our data also showed positive correlations between nrf2 expression and mRNA levels of its target genes, suggesting that Nrf2 was required for the protracted induction of these genes. Our results demonstrated the potential molecular mechanism of Zn-induced differences between lobes of hepatopancreas, suggesting that the sampling part of hepatopancreas should be considered with caution when assessing metal contamination.

Identification and Molecular Characterization of Superoxide Dismutases Isolated From A Scuticociliate Parasite: Physiological Role in Oxidative Stress

Philasterides dicentrarchi is a free-living microaerophilic scuticociliate that can become a facultative parasite and cause a serious parasitic disease in farmed fish. Both the free-living and parasitic forms of this scuticociliate are exposed to oxidative stress associated with environmental factors and the host immune system. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by the host are neutralized by the ciliate by means of antioxidant defences. In this study we aimed to identify metalloenzymes with superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity capable of inactivating the superoxide anion (•O2-) generated during induction of oxidative stress. P. dicentrarchi possesses the three characteristic types of SOD isoenzymes in eukaryotes: copper/zinc-SOD, manganese-SOD and iron-SOD. The Cu/Zn-SOD isoenzymes comprise three types of homodimeric proteins (CSD1-3) of molecular weight (MW) 34-44 kDa and with very different AA sequences. All Cu/Zn-SODs are sensitive to NaCN, located in the cytosol and in the alveolar sacs, and one of them (CSD2) is extracellular. Mn- and Fe-SOD transcripts encode homodimeric proteins (MSD and FSD, respectively) in their native state: a) MSD (MW 50 kDa) is insensitive to H2O2 and NaN3 and is located in the mitochondria; and b) FSD (MW 60 kDa) is sensitive to H2O2, NaN3 and the polyphenol trans-resveratrol and is located extracellularly. Expression of SOD isoenzymes increases when •O2- is induced by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, and the increase is proportional to the dose of energy applied, indicating that these enzymes are actively involved in cellular protection against oxidative stress.