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Masjedi MR, Torkshavand Z, Arfaeinia H, Dobaradaran S, Soleimani F, Farhadi A, Rashidi R, Novotny TE, Dadipoor S, Schmidt TC. First report on BTEX leaching from waterpipe tobacco wastes (WTWs) into aquatic environment. Heliyon 2023; 9:e21946. [PMID: 38034754 PMCID: PMC10682136 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Waterpipe tobacco wastes (WTWs) may contain considerable levels of hazardous contaminants such as BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, o-xylene, and m/p-xylene). However, no research has been carried out on BTEX levels in WTWs and the release of these pollutants into the water environment. This research examined the levels of BTEX in WTWs of flavored/local tobacco and also the release rate of these toxins into three kinds of water, including seawater (SW), tap water (TW), and distilled water (DW) with different leaching times (15, 30 min, 1.2, 4, 8 h, and 1, 2, and 4 days). The mean contents of BTEX in WTW samples of Al-Mahmoud, Al-Fakher, Mazaya, Al-Ayan brands, and local tobacco samples were 17.0 ± 4.14, 19.1 ± 4.65, 19.6 ± 4.19, 18.8 ± 4.14, and 3.16 ± 0.63 μg/kg, respectively. The mean BTEX levels in flavored tobacco samples were considerably greater than that of local tobacco (p < 0.05). The WTWs leaching experiments showed that the levels of BTEX ranged from 5.26 to 6.12, 5.02-5.60, and 3.83-5.46 μg/L in DW, TW, and SW, respectively. All target compounds were found for all exposure times in DW, TW, and SW samples. After adding sodium azide as an antibacterial agent to water samples (simulating biodegradation processes), higher levels of BTEX compounds were detected in SW. Further research is needed to address the potential environmental hazards due to WTWs leaching into aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Reza Masjedi
- Tobacco Control Research Center (TCRC), Iranian Anti-Tobacco Association, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Torkshavand
- Environmental and Occupational Health Research Center, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Hossein Arfaeinia
- Systems Environmental Health and Energy Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
| | - Sina Dobaradaran
- Systems Environmental Health and Energy Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
- Instrumental Analytical Chemistry and Centre for Water and Environmental Research (ZWU), Faculty of Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, Essen, Germany
- Centre for Water and Environmental Research, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, Essen, 45141, Germany
| | - Farshid Soleimani
- Tobacco and Health Research Center, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
| | - Akram Farhadi
- The Persian Gulf Tropical Medicine Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
| | - Roshana Rashidi
- Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Persian Gulf University, Bushehr, Iran
| | - Thomas E. Novotny
- School of Public Health, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, United States
- San Diego State University Research Foundation, San Diego, CA 92182, United States
| | - Sara Dadipoor
- Tobacco and Health Research Center, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
| | - Torsten C. Schmidt
- Instrumental Analytical Chemistry and Centre for Water and Environmental Research (ZWU), Faculty of Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, Essen, Germany
- Centre for Water and Environmental Research, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, Essen, 45141, Germany
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Wei HS, Berekute AK, Siregar S, Yu KP. High-efficiency carbon-coated steel wool filter for controlling cooking-induced oil smoke. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 334:122144. [PMID: 37414121 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
Cooking oil smoke (COS) contains many harmful substances, such as particulate matter, formaldehyde, and phenyl esters. Currently, commercial COS treatment equipment is expensive and requires a large space. Furthermore, a large amount of agricultural waste is generated and is mainly burned onsite, producing large amounts of greenhouse gases and air pollutants. This waste could be reused as a precursor for biochar and activated carbon. Therefore, this research used saccharification and catalytic hydrothermal carbonization to process rice straw and produce compact carbon-based filters (steel wool-C) for removing cooking-induced pollutants. Scanning electron microscopy indicated that carbon layers were coated on the steel wool. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area of the carbon filter was 71.595 m2/g, 43 times larger than that of steel wool. The steel wool filter removed 28.9%-45.4% of submicron aerosol particles. Adding a negative air ionizer (NAI) to the filter system enhanced the particle removal efficiency by 10%-25%. The removal efficiency of total volatile organic compounds was 27.3%-37.1% with the steel wool filter, but 57.2%-74.2% with the carbon-containing steel wool filter, and the NAI improved the removal efficiency by approximately 1%-5%. The aldehyde removal efficiency of the carbon filter with NAI was 59.0%-72.0%. Conclusively, the compact steel wool-C and NAI device could be promising COS treatment equipment for households and small eateries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho-Sheng Wei
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 11221, Taiwan
| | - Abiyu Kerebo Berekute
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 11221, Taiwan; Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Arba Minch University, Arbaminch, Ethiopia
| | - Sepridawati Siregar
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 11221, Taiwan; Faculty of Mineral Technology, AKPRIND Institute of Science & Technology, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Kuo-Pin Yu
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 11221, Taiwan.
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Navruz-Varli S, Bilici S, Ari A, Ertürk-Ari P, Ilhan MN, O Gaga E. Organic pollutant exposure and health effects of cooking emissions on kitchen staff in food services. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e13093. [PMID: 36040287 DOI: 10.1111/ina.13093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This study was conducted to determine the exposure and health risk to cooking fumes of a total of 88 volunteer kitchen staff aged between 18 and 65 years working in five different kitchens in Ankara. Gas- and particle-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and volatile organic compound (VOCs) concentrations were evaluated in the indoor air of 5 kitchens. Serum malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels were analyzed to determine the oxidative damage as a result of the exposure to cooking fumes among the cooks and waiters. Significant positive relationships were found between serum MDA levels of the hot kitchen workers and indoor chrysene (Chr), indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene (Ind), and total VOC levels. Although the carcinogenic risks estimated for the exposed population were between the acceptable/tolerable levels, the hazard quotient (HQ) estimated for the exposure to indoor benzene exceeded the safe level. The results of the study revealed that exposure to organic pollutants in indoor air may be a risk factor for the development of oxidative stress, especially in hot kitchen workers. The importance of efficient ventilation in the kitchen has been pointed out to reduce health risks caused by cooking fumes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Saniye Bilici
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkiye
| | - Akif Ari
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu, Turkiye
| | - Pelin Ertürk-Ari
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Bolu Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu, Turkiye
| | | | - Eftade O Gaga
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Eskişehir Technical University, Eskisehir, Turkiye
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Atamaleki A, Motesaddi Zarandi S, Massoudinejad M, Esrafili A, Mousavi Khaneghah A. Emission of BTEX compounds from the frying process: Quantification, environmental effects, and probabilistic health risk assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 204:112295. [PMID: 34743807 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Frying is one of the cooking methods which generates mono aromatic hydrocarbons, including benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX); subsequently, it affects health through carcinogenic (CR) and non-carcinogenic risks (n-CR). However, their environmental effects known by secondary organic aerosols (SOA) and ozone formation potential (OFP) were also attended by many scientists. Therefore, this study quantified the BTEX emissions from 4 types of most commonly used edible oils (canola, corn, sunflower, and blend) under various frying conditions of temperatures and food additives. Furthermore, the effects of the chemicals in the light of health (CR and n-CR) and environment (SOA and OFP) were also investigated. The study results showed that higher temperatures could significantly increase the emissions, while the addition of food ingredients significantly reduces the emissions. The rank order of emitted chemical was obtained as T > B > E > X. The blend had the most emission among oils, followed by, in descending order, corn, sunflower, and canola. In association with environmental effects, the orders of X > T > E > B and T ∼ E > X > B were obtained for OFP and SOA, respectively. THQ for blend, corn, canola, and sunflower oils was higher than 1 (1.76, 1.35, 1.27, and 1.002, respectively), showing a considerable n-CR when the hood was off. In this respect, TCR for the oils (1.78 × 10-4, 1.45 × 10-4, 1.39 × 10-4, and 1.05 × 10-4, respectively) shown the probable risk for all oils. Moreover, hood switching reduced the risk by about 11-81%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Atamaleki
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health and Safety, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeed Motesaddi Zarandi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health and Safety, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mohamadreza Massoudinejad
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health and Safety, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Esrafili
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
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Bandowe BAM, Lui KH, Jones T, BéruBé K, Adams R, Niu X, Wei C, Cao JJ, Lee SC, Chuang HC, Ho KF. The chemical composition and toxicological effects of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5) emitted from different cooking styles. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 288:117754. [PMID: 34284205 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The mass, chemical composition and toxicological properties of fine particulates (PM2.5) emitted from cooking activities in three Hong Kong based restaurants and two simulated cooking experiments were characterized. Extracts from the PM2.5 samples elicited significant biological activities [cell viability, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), DNA damage and inflammation effect (TNF-α)] in a dose-dependent manner. The composition of PAHs, oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs) and azaarenes (AZAs) mixtures differed between samples. The concentration ranges of the Σ30PAHs, Σ17OPAHs and Σ4AZAs and Σ7Carbonyls in the samples were 9627-23,452 pg m-3, 503-3700 pg m-3, 33-263 pg m-3 and 158 - 5328 ng m-3, respectively. Cell viability caused by extracts from the samples was positively correlated to the concentration of benzo[a]anthracene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene and 1,4-naphthoquinone in the PM2.5 extracts. Cellular ROS production (upon exposure to extracts) was positively correlated with the concentrations of PM2.5, decaldehyde, acridine, Σ17OPAHs and 7 individual OPAHs. TNF-α showed significant positive correlations with the concentrations of most chemical species (elemental carbon, 16 individual PAHs including benzo[a]pyrene, Σ30PAHs, SO42-, Ca2+, Ca, Na, K, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn). The concentrations of Al, Ti, Mn, Σ30PAHs and 8 individual PAHs including benzo[a]pyrene in the samples were positively correlated with DNA damage caused by extracts from the samples. This study demonstrates that inhalation of PM2.5 emitted from cooking could result in adverse human health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A Musa Bandowe
- Institute of Geography, University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 12, 3012, Bern, Switzerland; Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Multiphase Chemistry Department, Hahn-Meitner-Weg 1, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - K H Lui
- The Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Timothy Jones
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff, UK
| | - Kelly BéruBé
- School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, UK
| | - Rachel Adams
- Cardiff School of Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Western Avenue, Cardiff, UK
| | - Xinyi Niu
- The Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chong Wei
- Shanghai Carbon Data Research Center (SCDRC), CAS Key Laboratory of Low-Carbon Conversion Science and Engineering, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 2010210, China
| | - Jun-Ji Cao
- Key Laboratory of Aerosol Chemistry and Physics, SKLLQG, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, 710075, China; Institute of Global Environmental Change, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - S C Lee
- Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Research Center of Urban Environmental Technology and Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hsiao-Chi Chuang
- School of Respiratory Therapy, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Shuang Ho Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - K F Ho
- The Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
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Yan S, Zhou H, Liu S, Wang J, Zeng Y, Matias FB, Wen L. Differential effects of Chinese high-fat dietary habits on lipid metabolism: mechanisms and health implications. Lipids Health Dis 2020; 19:30. [PMID: 32113467 PMCID: PMC7049192 DOI: 10.1186/s12944-020-01212-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The traditional Chinese diet blends lard with vegetable oil, keeping the fatty acid balance intake ratio of saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids at nearly 1:1:1. However, the effects of a mixture of lard and vegetable oil on lipid metabolism have never been researched. In the present study, by simulating Chinese high-fat dietary habits, we explored the effects of a mixture of lard and vegetable oil on lipid metabolism. Methods We randomly assigned 50 male C57BL/6 J mice to 5 groups (10 in each group) and fed them lard, sunflower oil (SFO), soybean oil (SBO), lard blended with sunflower oil (L-SFO), or lard blended with soybean oil (L-SBO) for 12 weeks. Results We found that the final body weights of mice in the lard group were significantly higher than those of mice in the SFO and SBO groups. Body fat rate and volume of fat cell of the lard group were significantly higher than those of the SFO, SBO, and L-SBO groups. Liver triglyceride level of the lard group increased significantly compared to the other groups. Although body fat rate and liver triglyceride level in the SBO and SFO groups decreased compared to those in the other groups, the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol/low-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio were also significantly decreased in the SBO and SFO groups. Conclusions We found that a lard diet induced accumulation of body fat, liver and serum lipids, which can increase the risk of obesity, non-alcoholic fatty acid liver disease, and atherosclerosis. The vegetable oil diet resulted in cholesterol metabolism disorders even though it did not lead to obesity. The mixed oil diet induced body fat accumulation, but did not cause lipid accumulation in the liver and serum. Thus, differential oil/fat diets have an impact on differential aspects in mouse lipid metabolism. Graphical abstract ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Sisi Yan
- Laboratory of Animal Clinical Toxicology, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, No. 1, Nongda Road, Changsha City, 410128, Hunan Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Huijuan Zhou
- Laboratory of Animal Clinical Toxicology, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, No. 1, Nongda Road, Changsha City, 410128, Hunan Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuiping Liu
- Laboratory of Animal Clinical Toxicology, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, No. 1, Nongda Road, Changsha City, 410128, Hunan Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Ji Wang
- Laboratory of Animal Clinical Toxicology, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, No. 1, Nongda Road, Changsha City, 410128, Hunan Province, People's Republic of China.,Changsha Lvye Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Changsha, Hunan Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Zeng
- Laboratory of Animal Clinical Toxicology, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, No. 1, Nongda Road, Changsha City, 410128, Hunan Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Froilan Bernard Matias
- Department of Animal Management, College of Veterinary Science and Medicine, Central Luzon State University, 3120, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
| | - Lixin Wen
- Laboratory of Animal Clinical Toxicology, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, No. 1, Nongda Road, Changsha City, 410128, Hunan Province, People's Republic of China. .,Hunan Collaborative Innovation Center of Animal Production Safety, No. 1, Nongda Road, Changsha City, 410128, Hunan Province, People's Republic of China.
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Giuffrè A, Capocasale M, Macrì R, Caracciolo M, Zappia C, Poiana M. Volatile profiles of extra virgin olive oil, olive pomace oil, soybean oil and palm oil in different heating conditions. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Hierarchical ZSM-5 based on fly ash for the low-temperature purification of odorous volatile organic compound in cooking fumes. REACTION KINETICS MECHANISMS AND CATALYSIS 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11144-019-01633-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Risk assessment of personal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and aldehydes in three commercial cooking workplaces. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1661. [PMID: 30733493 PMCID: PMC6367358 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-38082-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cooking-related emissions are associated with environmental pollution and adverse health effects. Of the various chemical species emitted during cooking, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and aldehydes are two chemical species with carcinogenic or tumor promoting characteristics. Although PAH exposure has been studied in commercial kitchen workers, few studies have investigated simultaneous exposure to PAHs and aldehydes in these workers. The aims of this study were to compare personal concentrations of PAH and aldehyde in three commercial cooking workplaces and to estimate their corresponding cancer risks. The three cooking workplaces included western fast food restaurant kitchens, Chinese cafeteria kitchens, and street food carts. Comparisons showed that workers in western fast food restaurant kitchens and Chinese cafeteria kitchens tended to have lower personal concentrations of these pollutants compared to workers in street food carts. The geometric mean (95% CI) cancer risks in the three workplaces were, from lowest to highest, 1.36 (1.12-1.67) × 10-5 for western fast food restaurant kitchens, 1.52 (1.01-2.28) × 10-5 for Chinese cafeteria kitchens, and 3.14 (2.45-4.01) × 10-5 for street food carts. The percentage contributions of aldehyde species to cancer risk were very high (74.9-99.7%). Street food cart workers had high personal exposure to aldehyde probably due to lack of effective exhaust systems. Thus, their cancer risk was significantly higher than those of workers in western fast food restaurant kitchens (p < 0.001) and Chinese cafeteria kitchens (p = 0.013).
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Peng CY, Lan CH, Lin PC, Kuo YC. Effects of cooking method, cooking oil, and food type on aldehyde emissions in cooking oil fumes. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2017; 324:160-167. [PMID: 27780622 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.10.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 09/24/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Cooking oil fumes (COFs) contain a mixture of chemicals. Of all chemicals, aldehydes draw a great attention since several of them are considered carcinogenic and formation of long-chain aldehydes is related to fatty acids in cooking oils. The objectives of this research were to compare aldehyde compositions and concentrations in COFs produced by different cooking oils, cooking methods, and food types and to suggest better cooking practices. This study compared aldehydes in COFs produced using four cooking oils (palm oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, and soybean oil), three cooking methods (stir frying, pan frying, and deep frying), and two foods (potato and pork loin) in a typical kitchen. Results showed the highest total aldehyde emissions in cooking methods were produced by deep frying, followed by pan frying then by stir frying. Sunflower oil had the highest emissions of total aldehydes, regardless of cooking method and food type whereas rapeseed oil and palm oil had relatively lower emissions. This study suggests that using gentle cooking methods (e.g., stir frying) and using oils low in unsaturated fatty acids (e.g., palm oil or rapeseed oil) can reduce the production of aldehydes in COFs, especially long-chain aldehydes such as hexanal and t,t-2,4-DDE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiung-Yu Peng
- Department of Public Health, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan; Research Center for Environmental Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan.
| | - Cheng-Hang Lan
- Department of Occupational Safety and Health, Chung-Hwa University of Medical Technology, Tainan 71703, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Chen Lin
- Research Center for Cijin Cohort Study, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Chun Kuo
- Department of Public Health, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
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Hecht SS, Koh WP, Wang R, Chen M, Carmella SG, Murphy SE, Yuan JM. Elevated levels of mercapturic acids of acrolein and crotonaldehyde in the urine of Chinese women in Singapore who regularly cook at home. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0120023. [PMID: 25807518 PMCID: PMC4373935 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0120023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 01/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is unusually common among non-smoking women in Southeastern Asia but the causes of this frequently fatal disease are not well understood. Several epidemiology studies indicate that inhalation of fumes from high temperature Chinese style cooking with a wok may be a cause. Only one previous study investigated uptake of potential toxicants and carcinogens by women who cook with a wok. We enrolled three-hundred twenty-eight non-smoking women from Singapore for this study. Each provided a spot urine sample and answered a questionnaire concerning their cooking habits and other factors. The urine samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for mercapturic acid metabolites of acrolein (3-hydroxypropylmercapturic acid), crotonaldehyde (3-hydroxy-1-methylpropylmercapturic acid), and benzene (S-phenylmercapturic acid), accepted biomarkers of uptake of these toxic and carcinogenic compounds. We observed statistically significant effects of wok cooking frequency on levels of 3-hydroxypropylmercapturic acid and 3-hydroxy-1-methylpropylmercapturic acid, but not S-phenylmercapturic acid. Women who cooked greater than 7 times per week had a geometric mean of 2600 (95% CI, 2189-3090) pmol/mg creatinine 3-hydroxypropylmercapturic acid compared to 1901 (95% CI, 1510-2395) pmol/mg creatinine when cooking less than once per week (P for trend 0.018). The corresponding values for 3-hydroxy-1-methylpropylmercapturic acid were 1167 (95% CI, 1022-1332) and 894 (95% CI, 749-1067) pmol/mg creatinine (P for trend 0.008). We conclude that frequent wok cooking leads to elevated exposure to the toxicants acrolein and crotonaldehyde, but not benzene. Kitchens should be properly ventilated to decrease exposure to potentially toxic and carcinogenic fumes produced during Chinese style wok cooking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen S. Hecht
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Woon-Puay Koh
- Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
- Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Renwei Wang
- Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Menglan Chen
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Steven G. Carmella
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Sharon E. Murphy
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Jian-Min Yuan
- Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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Lin CM, Kao WC, Yeh CA, Chen HJ, Lin SZ, Hsieh HH, Sun WS, Chang CH, Hung HS. Hyaluronic acid-fabricated nanogold delivery of the inhibitor of apoptosis protein-2 siRNAs inhibits benzo[a]pyrene-induced oncogenic properties of lung cancer A549 cells. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 26:105101. [PMID: 25693888 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/26/10/105101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), a component of cooking oil fumes (COF), promotes lung cancer cell proliferation and survival via the induction of inhibitor of apoptosis protein-2 (IAP-2) proteins. Thus knockdown of IAP-2 would be a promising way to battle against lung cancer caused by COF. Functionalized gold nanoparticle (AuNP) is an effective delivery system for bio-active materials. Here, biocompatible hyaluronic acid (HA) was fabricated into nanoparticles to increase the target specificity by binding to CD44-over-expressed cancer cells. IAP-2-specific small-interfering RNA (siRNAs) or fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) were then incorporated into AuNP-HA. Conjugation of IAP-2 siRNA into AuNPs-HA was verified by the UV-vis spectrometer and Fourier transform infrared spectrometer. Further studies showed that AuNP-HA/FITC were effectively taken up by A549 cells through CD44-mediated endocytosis. Incubation of BaP-challenged cells with AuNP-HA-IAP-2 siRNAs silenced the expression of IAP-2, decreased cell proliferation and triggered pronounced cell apoptosis by the decrease in Bcl-2 protein and the increase in Bax protein as well as the active form of caspases-3. The BaP-elicited cell migration and enzymatic activity of the secreted matrix metalloproteinase-2 were also substantially suppressed by treatment with AuNP-HA-IAP-2 siRNAs. These results indicated that IAP-2 siRNAs can be efficiently delivered into A549 cells by functionalized AuNP-HA to repress the IAP-2 expression and BaP-induced oncogenic events, suggesting the potential therapeutic application of IAP-2 siRNA or other siRNA-conjugated AuNP-HA composites to COF-induced lung cancer and other gene-caused diseases in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung-Ming Lin
- Department of Biotechnology, Ming Chuan University, Taoyuan, Taiwan, People's Republic of China
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13
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Sameenoi Y, Panymeesamer P, Supalakorn N, Koehler K, Chailapakul O, Henry CS, Volckens J. Microfluidic paper-based analytical device for aerosol oxidative activity. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 47:932-40. [PMID: 23227907 PMCID: PMC3556395 DOI: 10.1021/es304662w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Human exposure to particulate matter (PM) air pollution has been linked with respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases, in addition to various cancers. Consistent among all of these associations is the hypothesis that PM induces inflammation and oxidative stress in the affected tissue. Consequently, a variety of assays have been developed to quantify the oxidative activity of PM as a means to characterize its ability to induced oxidative stress. The vast majority of these assays rely on high-volume, fixed-location sampling methods due to limitations in assay sensitivity and detection limit. As a result, our understanding of how personal exposure contributes to the intake of oxidative air pollution is limited. To further this understanding, we present a microfluidic paper-based analytical device (μPAD) for measuring PM oxidative activity on filters collected by personal sampling. The μPAD is inexpensive to fabricate and provides fast and sensitive analysis of aerosol oxidative activity. The oxidative activity measurement is based on the dithiothreitol assay (DTT assay), uses colorimetric detection, and can be completed in the field within 30 min following sample collection. The μPAD assay was validated against the traditional DTT assay using 13 extracted aerosol samples including urban aerosols, biomass burning PM, cigarette smoke, and incense smoke. The results showed no significant differences in DTT consumption rate measured by the two methods. To demonstrate the utility of the approach, personal samples were collected to estimate human exposures to PM from indoor air, outdoor air on a clean day, and outdoor air on a wildfire-impacted day in Fort Collins, CO. Filter samples collected on the wildfire day gave the highest oxidative activity on a mass normalized basis, whereas typical ambient background air showed the lowest oxidative activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yupaporn Sameenoi
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
| | | | - Natcha Supalakorn
- Department of Chemistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Kirsten Koehler
- Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
| | - Orawon Chailapakul
- Department of Chemistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Charles S. Henry
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Dr. Charles S. Henry, Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA; , Fax: 1-970-491-1801; Tel: 1-970-491-2852; Dr. John Volckens, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA; ; Tel: 1-970-491-6341
| | - John Volckens
- Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Dr. Charles S. Henry, Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA; , Fax: 1-970-491-1801; Tel: 1-970-491-2852; Dr. John Volckens, Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA; ; Tel: 1-970-491-6341
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14
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Young SC, Chang LW, Lee HL, Tsai LH, Liu YC, Lin P. DNA damages induced by trans, trans-2,4-decadienal (tt-DDE), a component of cooking oil fume, in human bronchial epithelial cells. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2010; 51:315-321. [PMID: 20143344 DOI: 10.1002/em.20550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that cooking oil fumes (COF) are an environmental risk factor for the development of lung adenocarcinoma among nonsmoking females in Taiwan. Aside from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, aldehydes, especially trans, trans-2,4-decadienal (tt-DDE) are found to be abundant in COF. Although there is indication that tt-DDE induces DNA damage, the precise role of tt-DDE in the induction of DNA damage in lung cells is still not clear. When we assessed DNA breaks with the Comet assay, we found that the DNA breaks induced by 1 muM tt-DDE in human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) could be significantly reduced by antioxidants, suggesting that oxidative stress was involved. Indeed, when tt-DDE-treated cells were coincubated with endonuclease III/formamidopyrimidine-DNA glycosylase or with nuclear extract (NE), an enhancement of DNA breaks was observed at 1 hr after tt-DDE exposure. Furthermore, when NE was incubated with an antibody against 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase (anti-OGG1), a reduction in tt-DDE/NE-induced DNA breaks could be demonstrated. Since OGG1 is a specific repair enzyme for 8-oxo-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG), these findings indicated that 8-oxo-dG was involved. On the other hand, when NE was incubated with antibodies against nucleotide excision repair enzymes, there was a significant reduction in tt-DDE/NE-induced DNA breaks at 4 hr after tt-DDE treatment. These observations indicate that, in addition to early oxidative DNA damage, nonoxidative DNA damage such as bulky adduct formation, was also induced by tt-DDE. Our study further affirms that tt-DDE is genotoxic to human lung cells and can increase carcinogenic risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun-Chieh Young
- Division of Environmental Health and Occupational Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan, Miaoli country 350, Taiwan
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15
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Zhang Q, Gangupomu RH, Ramirez D, Zhu Y. Measurement of ultrafine particles and other air pollutants emitted by cooking activities. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2010; 7:1744-59. [PMID: 20617057 PMCID: PMC2872333 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph7041744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2010] [Revised: 04/03/2010] [Accepted: 04/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cooking emissions show a strong dependence on cooking styles and parameters. Measurements of the average ultrafine particle (UFP) concentration, PM2.5 and black carbon concentrations emitted by cooking activities ranged from 1.34 × 104 to 6.04 × 105 particles/cm3, 10.0 to 230.9 μg/m3 and 0.1 to 0.8 μg/m3, respectively. Lower UFP concentrations were observed during boiling, while higher levels were emitted during frying. The highest UFP concentrations were observed when using a gas stove at high temperature with the kitchen exhaust fan turned off. The observed UFP profiles were similar in the kitchen and in another room, with a lag of approximately 10 min.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qunfang Zhang
- Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Department of Environmental Engineering, 700 University Blvd. MSC 213, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA; E-mails:
(Q.Z.);
(D.R.)
| | - Roja H. Gangupomu
- The University of Texas at Arlington, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Box 19308 416 Yates St. Suite 425, Arlington, TX 76019, USA; E-mail:
| | - David Ramirez
- Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Department of Environmental Engineering, 700 University Blvd. MSC 213, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA; E-mails:
(Q.Z.);
(D.R.)
| | - Yifang Zhu
- Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Department of Environmental Engineering, 700 University Blvd. MSC 213, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA; E-mails:
(Q.Z.);
(D.R.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-mail:
; Tel.: +1-361-593-3898; Fax: +1-361-593-2069
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16
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Jiang X, Zhu S, Wu Y, Huai H. The effects of cooking oil fume condensates (COFCs) on the vegetative growth of Salvinia natans (L.) All. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2009; 172:240-246. [PMID: 19632045 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2008] [Revised: 07/01/2009] [Accepted: 07/01/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Cooking oil fumes (COF) and their condensates (COFCs), which are suspected of causing human lung cancers, are hazardous materials to environments. The effects of COFCs on the vegetative growth of Salvinia natans (L.) All., a free-floating aquatic fern, are discussed in this paper. The results showed that there were no differences of the number of floating leaves and the mean numbers of new leaves of S. natans in all groups, but these indices in experimental groups were influenced obviously at the late stage. COFCs also influenced stem length and number of buds of S. natans. COFCs could cause the floating leaves to turn yellow and individuals to die quickly. All these effects were correlated with the concentration of COFCs and the time. When the concentration of COFCs was > or =0.18 g/l, above 80% individuals would die in a short time. COFCs had significant impacts on the decrease in photosynthetic areas of S. natans by making the floating leaves turn yellow faster and accelerating the decomposition. There were some components in minute amount benefiting to the growth of S. natans. S. natans was sensitive to COFCs and could be a potential indicator for monitoring COFCs pollution in aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinchuang Jiang
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Wenhui Road 225009, China
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17
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Mestdagh F, Castelein P, Van Peteghem C, De Meulenaer B. Importance of oil degradation components in the formation of acrylamide in fried foodstuffs. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2008; 56:6141-6144. [PMID: 18624436 DOI: 10.1021/jf073049y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
This study investigates the importance of selected oil degradation components and some analogues in the formation of acrylamide. For this, a model system containing silica gel, PBS buffer, and oil was heated in a closed tubular reactor, under practically relevant heating conditions. Several probable acrylamide precursors were mixed together with free asparagine in the model system, such as partial glycerides, glycerol, acrolein, acrylic acid, and several aldehydes. Only the heated model system containing acrolein and asparagine showed a significantly higher acrylamide content compared to the control to which only asparagine was added. It was postulated that a nucleophilic 1,2-addition of the alpha-amino group of free asparagine to the carbonyl function of acrolein would lead to the formation of acrylamide. This hypothesis could partially be confirmed, replacing acrolein with other alpha,beta-unsaturated aldehydes. However, the contribution of acrolein to the overall formation of acrylamide appeared to be negligible in the presence of a reducing sugar, indicating that in foodstuffs the importance of acrolein and other oil degradation products is probably small.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Mestdagh
- Research Group Food Chemistry and Human Nutrition, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
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18
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Emission of Volatile Aldehydes from DAG-Rich and TAG-Rich Oils with Different Degrees of Unsaturation During Deep-Frying. J AM OIL CHEM SOC 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s11746-008-1236-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Li PC, Chen WC, Chang LC, Lin SC. Substance P acts via the neurokinin receptor 1 to elicit bronchoconstriction, oxidative stress, and upregulated ICAM-1 expression after oil smoke exposure. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2008; 294:L912-20. [PMID: 18326823 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00443.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to 1) assess whether substance P (SP) acts via neurokinin (NK)-1 and NK-2 receptors to stimulate neurogenic inflammation (indicated by formation of ICAM-1 expression and oxidative stress) following oil smoke exposure (OSE) in rats; and 2) determine if pretreatment with antioxidants ameliorates the deleterious effects of OSE. Rats were pretreated with NK-1 receptor antagonist CP-96345, NK-2 receptor antagonist SR-48968, vitamin C, or catechins. OSE was for 30-120 min. Rats were killed 0-8 h later. Total lung resistance (RL), airway smooth muscle activity (ASMA), lung ICAM-1 expression, neurogenic plasma extravasation (via India ink and Evans blue dye), bronchoalveolar lavage fluid SP concentrations, and reactive oxygen species formation [via lucigenin- and luminal-amplified chemiluminescence (CL)] were assessed. Lung histology was performed. SP concentrations increased significantly in nonpretreated rats following OSE in a dose-dependent manner. RL and total ASMA increased over time after OSE. Vitamin C and catechin pretreatments were associated with significantly reduced lucigenin CL 2 and 4 h after OSE. Pretreatment with catechins significantly reduced luminal CL counts 4 and 8 h after OSE. Evans blue levels were significantly reduced following 60 and 120 min of OSE in catechin- and CP-96345-pretreated rats. ICAM-1 protein expression was significantly decreased in all pretreatment groups after OSE. Thickening of the alveolar capillary membrane, focal hemorrhaging, interstitial pneumonitis, and peribronchiolar inflammation were apparent in OSE lungs. These findings suggest that SP acts via the NK-1 receptor to provoke neurogenic inflammation, oxidative stress, and ICAM-1 expression after OSE in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping-Chia Li
- Dept. of Occupational Therapy, I-Shou Univ., No. 8 E-Da Road, Jiau-Shu Tsuen, Yan-Chau Shiang, Kaohsiung County 824, Tainan City, Republic of China (Taiwan).
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20
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Lin TC, Chang FH, Hsieh JH, Chao HR, Chao MR. Characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and total suspended particulate in indoor and outdoor atmosphere of a Taiwanese temple. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2002; 95:1-12. [PMID: 12409235 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3894(02)00146-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Incense burning, a common and popular practice among many families and in most temples in Taiwan, can result in indoor pollution-related health problems. This exploratory study was aimed at characterizing human exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and total suspended particulate (TSP) inside and around a Taiwanese temple, and to compare the indoor levels with levels outside. Additionally, three types of commonly used unburned incense and incense ash were analyzed in order to evaluate the relationship between incense composition and PAH emissions.Standard methods were used to determine air concentrations of 21 PAHs and TSP inside and around a chosen temple. Indoor mean total-PAH concentration, particle-bound PAH concentration and TSP concentration were 6258 ng/m(3), 490 micro g/g and 1316 micro g/m(3), respectively; values for outdoor readings were 231 ng/m (3), 245 micro g/g and 73 micro g/m(3), for outdoors, respectively indicating PAH and TSP concentrations inside 27 and 18 times greater, respectively than outdoors. With respect to concentrations of individual PAHs (particulate+gas phase), the five highest concentrations were of acenaphthylene (AcPy) (3583 ng/m(3)), naphthalene (Nap) (1264 ng/m(3)), acenaphthene (Acp) (349 ng/m(3)), fluoranthene (FL) (243 ng/m(3)) and phenanthrene (PA) (181 ng/m(3)). Median values for indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios of individual PAHs ranged from 5.7 to 387.9, which implied that the temple was a significant PAH source. Moreover, PAH content of the tested stick incense and ash was very low. PAH levels inside the temple were much higher than those measured in the vicinity and inside residential houses; and were in fact close to levels measured at a local traffic intersection in Tainan, Taiwan, and those in a graphite-electrode producing plant during the graphitization process. It is obvious that such substantially high concentrations of PAHs and TSP constitute a potential health hazard to people working in or visiting the temple.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ta-Chang Lin
- Department of Environmental Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, 701, Tainan, Taiwan.
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