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Chen Y, Li L, Xu J, Liu Y, Xie Y, Xiong A, Wang Z, Yang L. Mass spectrometric analysis strategies for pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Food Chem 2024; 445:138748. [PMID: 38422865 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.138748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in food and natural preparations have received widespread attention due to their hepatotoxicity, genotoxicity, and embryotoxicity. Mass spectrometry (MS), as a high resolution, high sensitive, and high throughput detection tool, has been the most commonly used technique for the determination of PAs. The continuous advancement of new technologies, methods, and strategies in the field of MS has contributed to the improvement of the analytical efficiency and methodological enhancement of PAs. This paper provides an overview of the structure, toxicity properties and commonly employed analytical methods, focusing on the concepts, advances, and novel techniques and applications of MS-based methods for the analysis of PAs. Additionally, the remaining challenges, future perspectives, and trends for PA detection are discussed. This review provides a reference for toxicological studies of PAs, content monitoring, and the establishment of quality control and safety standards for herbal and food products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yilin Chen
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Linnan Li
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China.
| | - Jie Xu
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yamin Liu
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yanqiao Xie
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Aizhen Xiong
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Zhengtao Wang
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Li Yang
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Medicines, The SATCM Key Laboratory of New Resources and Quality Evaluation of Chinese Medicines, The Shanghai Key Laboratory for Compound Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China.
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Kucukoglu AS, Hiz G, Karaca H. Effects of thermal and nonthermal treatments on microorganisms, pyrrolizidine alkaloids and volatile compounds in oregano (Origanum vulgare L.). Food Chem 2024; 440:138235. [PMID: 38134825 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.138235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Effects of steam sterilization, gamma-irradiation, UV-irradiation and ozonation on microbial inactivation, pyrrolizidine alkaloid degradation and volatile compound profile in oregano were investigated. Steam sterilization and gamma-irradiation were the most effective treatments in inactivating microorganisms. These treatments resulted in 0.87-2.15 log reductions in total aerobic mesophilic bacteria counts and reduced yeast-mold and Enterobacteriaceae counts below the detectable level. Steam sterilization caused increased levels of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) and decreased levels of their N-oxide forms (PANOs) demonstrating a simultaneous conversion of PANOs into the corresponding PAs. Ozone treatment caused significant decreases in the levels of individual and total PAs/PANOs. After ozone treatment, decreases of 54.4, 53.9, 61.6 and 61.4% were observed in the levels of europine-N-oxide, europine, lasiocarpine-N-oxide and lasiocarpine, respectively. Steam sterilization, UV-irradiation and ozone treatments significantly altered the composition of the volatile compounds of oregano as evidenced by decreased levels of major components and the formation of some new compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arife S Kucukoglu
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Pamukkale University, 20160, Kinikli, Denizli, Turkey.
| | - Gulin Hiz
- Denizli Food Control Laboratory Directorate, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Republic of Turkey, 20010, Merkezefendi, Denizli, Turkey.
| | - Hakan Karaca
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Pamukkale University, 20160, Kinikli, Denizli, Turkey.
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3
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Schrenk D, Allemang A, Fahrer J, Harms H, Li X, Lin G, Mahony C, Mulder P, Peijnenburg A, Pfuhler S, Punt A, Sievers H, Troutman J, Widjaja F. Toxins in Botanical Drugs and Plant-derived Food and Feed - from Science to Regulation: A Workshop Review. PLANTA MEDICA 2024; 90:219-242. [PMID: 38198805 DOI: 10.1055/a-2218-5667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
In September 2022, the 3rd International Workshop on pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) and related phytotoxins was held on-line, entitled 'Toxins in botanical drugs and plant-derived food and feed - from science to regulation'. The workshop focused on new findings about the occurrence, exposure, toxicity, and risk assessment of PAs. In addition, new scientific results related to the risk assessment of alkenylbenzenes, a distinct class of herbal constituents, were presented. The presence of PAs and alkenylbenzenes in plant-derived food, feed, and herbal medicines has raised health concerns with respect to their acute and chronic toxicity but mainly related to the genotoxic and carcinogenic properties of several congeners. The compounds are natural constituents of a variety of plant families and species widely used in medicinal, food, and feed products. Their individual occurrence, levels, and toxic properties, together with the broad range of congeners present in nature, represent a striking challenge to modern toxicology. This review tries to provide an overview of the current knowledge on these compounds and indicates needs and perspectives for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter Schrenk
- Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Ashley Allemang
- Central Product Safety, The Procter & Gamble Company, Mason, USA
| | - Jörg Fahrer
- Food Chemistry and Toxicology, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Henrik Harms
- Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (BfArM), Bonn, Germany
| | - Xilin Li
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U. S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, USA
| | - Ge Lin
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Catherine Mahony
- Central Product Safety, Procter & Gamble Technical Centre, Reading, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick Mulder
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Ad Peijnenburg
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Stefan Pfuhler
- Central Product Safety, The Procter & Gamble Company, Mason, USA
| | - Ans Punt
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | | | - John Troutman
- Central Product Safety, The Procter & Gamble Company, Mason, USA
| | - Frances Widjaja
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
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4
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Widjaja F, Alhejji Y, Yangchen J, Wesseling S, Rietjens IMCM. Physiologically-Based Kinetic Modeling Predicts Similar In Vivo Relative Potency of Senecionine N-Oxide for Rat and Human at Realistic Low Exposure Levels. Mol Nutr Food Res 2023; 67:e2200293. [PMID: 36478522 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.202200293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
SCOPE This study aims to determine if previously developed physiologically-based kinetic (PBK) model in rat can be modified for senecionine (SEN) and its N-oxide (SENO), and be used to investigate potential species differences between rat and human in relative potency (REP) of the N-oxide relative to the parent pyrrolizidine alkaloid (PA). METHODS AND RESULTS In vitro derived kinetic parameters including the apparent maximum velocities (Vmax ) and Michaelis-Menten constants (Km ) for SENO reduction and SEN clearance are used to define the PBK models. The rat model is validated with published animal data, and the toxicokinetic profiles of SEN from either orally-administered SENO or SEN are simulated. REP values of SENO relative to SEN amount to 0.84 and 0.89 in rat and human, respectively. CONCLUSION The REP value can be dose- and species-dependent, with the values for rat and human being comparable at low realistic exposure scenarios. In summary, PBK modeling serves as a valuable New Approach Methodology (NAM) tool for predicting REP values of PA-N-oxides and may actually result in more accurate REP values for human risk assessment than what would be defined using in vivo animal experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frances Widjaja
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, PO Box 8000, Wageningen, 6700 EA, The Netherlands
| | - Yasser Alhejji
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, PO Box 8000, Wageningen, 6700 EA, The Netherlands.,Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Qassim University, Buraydah, 51452, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jamyang Yangchen
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, PO Box 8000, Wageningen, 6700 EA, The Netherlands.,Bhutan Agriculture and Food Regulatory Authority, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests, Thimphu, 11002, Bhutan
| | - Sebastiaan Wesseling
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, PO Box 8000, Wageningen, 6700 EA, The Netherlands
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, PO Box 8000, Wageningen, 6700 EA, The Netherlands
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Taenzer J, Gehling M, Klevenhusen F, Saltzmann J, Dänicke S, These A. Rumen Metabolism of Senecio Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids May Explain Why Cattle Tolerate Higher Doses Than Monogastric Species. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:10111-10120. [PMID: 35948427 PMCID: PMC9413219 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c01332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Rumen metabolism of Senecio pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) and their N-oxide forms was studied by mass spectrometry in in vitro batch culture incubates and confirmed in in vivo samples. Most N-oxides were found to undergo rapid conversion to their corresponding free bases, followed by biotransformation to metabolites hydrogenated at both the necine base and the necic acid moiety. Therefore, rumen metabolism can be considered a detoxification step, as saturated necine base structures are known as the platyphylline type, which is regarded as less or nontoxic. Individual Senecio PAs, such as jacoline, are metabolized slowly during rumen fermentation. PAs that showed limited biotransformation in the rumen in this study also showed limited transformation and CYP-mediated bioactivation in the liver in other studies. This could not only explain why PAs that are comparatively metabolically stable can pass into milk but also suggest that such PAs might be considered compounds of lesser concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Taenzer
- Department
Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal
Institute for Risk Assessment, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Matthias Gehling
- Department
Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal
Institute for Risk Assessment, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Fenja Klevenhusen
- Department
Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal
Institute for Risk Assessment, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Janine Saltzmann
- Institute
of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research
Institute for Animal Health, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sven Dänicke
- Institute
of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research
Institute for Animal Health, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Anja These
- Department
Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal
Institute for Risk Assessment, 10589 Berlin, Germany
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6
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Zhu L, Xue J, He Y, Xia Q, Fu PP, Lin G. Correlation Investigation between Pyrrole-DNA and Pyrrole-Protein Adducts in Male ICR Mice Exposed to Retrorsine, a Hepatotoxic Pyrrolizidine Alkaloid. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14060377. [PMID: 35737038 PMCID: PMC9231038 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14060377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) have been found in over 6000 plants worldwide and represent the most common hepatotoxic phytotoxins. Catalyzed by hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes, PAs are metabolized into reactive pyrrolic metabolites, which can alkylate cellular proteins and DNA to form pyrrole-protein adducts and pyrrole-DNA adducts, leading to cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and tumorigenicity. To date, the correlation between these PA-derived pyrrole-protein and pyrrole-DNA adducts has not been well investigated. Retrorsine is a representative hepatotoxic and carcinogenic PA. In the present study, the correlations among the PA-derived liver DNA adducts, liver protein adducts, and serum protein adducts in retrorsine-treated mice under different dosage regimens were studied. The results showed positive correlations among these adducts, in which serum pyrrole-protein adducts were more accessible and present in higher abundance, and thus could be used as a suitable surrogate biomarker for pyrrole-DNA adducts to indicate the genetic or carcinogenic risk posed by retrorsine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; (L.Z.); (J.X.); (Y.H.)
| | - Junyi Xue
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; (L.Z.); (J.X.); (Y.H.)
| | - Yisheng He
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; (L.Z.); (J.X.); (Y.H.)
| | - Qingsu Xia
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA;
| | - Peter P. Fu
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA;
- Correspondence: (P.P.F.); (G.L.)
| | - Ge Lin
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; (L.Z.); (J.X.); (Y.H.)
- Correspondence: (P.P.F.); (G.L.)
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7
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Chen Y, Wang WQ, Jia XL, Wang CH, Yang L, Wang ZT, Xiong AZ. Firm evidence for the detoxification of senecionine-induced hepatotoxicity via N-glucuronidation in UGT1A4–humanized transgenic mice. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 165:113185. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Revised: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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8
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Schrenk D, Fahrer J, Allemang A, Fu P, Lin G, Mahony C, Mulder PPJ, Peijnenburg A, Pfuhler S, Rietjens IMCM, Sachse B, Steinhoff B, These A, Troutman J, Wiesner J. Novel Insights into Pyrrolizidine Alkaloid Toxicity and Implications for Risk Assessment: Occurrence, Genotoxicity, Toxicokinetics, Risk Assessment-A Workshop Report. PLANTA MEDICA 2022; 88:98-117. [PMID: 34715696 DOI: 10.1055/a-1646-3618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This paper reports on the major contributions and results of the 2nd International Workshop of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids held in September 2020 in Kaiserslautern, Germany. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are among the most relevant plant toxins contaminating food, feed, and medicinal products of plant origin. Hundreds of PA congeners with widespread occurrence are known, and thousands of plants are assumed to contain PAs. Due to certain PAs' pronounced liver toxicity and carcinogenicity, their occurrence in food, feed, and phytomedicines has raised serious human health concerns. This is particularly true for herbal teas, certain food supplements, honey, and certain phytomedicinal drugs. Due to the limited availability of animal data, broader use of in vitro data appears warranted to improve the risk assessment of a large number of relevant, 1,2-unsaturated PAs. This is true, for example, for the derivation of both toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic data. These efforts aim to understand better the modes of action, uptake, metabolism, elimination, toxicity, and genotoxicity of PAs to enable a detailed dose-response analysis and ultimately quantify differing toxic potencies between relevant PAs. Accordingly, risk-limiting measures comprising production, marketing, and regulation of food, feed, and medicinal products are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter Schrenk
- Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Technical University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Jörg Fahrer
- Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Technical University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | | | - Peter Fu
- National Center for Toxicological Research, Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, USA
| | - Ge Lin
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Catherine Mahony
- Procter & Gamble, Technical Centres Limited, Weybridge, Surrey, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick P J Mulder
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Ad Peijnenburg
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | | | | | - Benjamin Sachse
- German Federal Institute of Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Anja These
- German Federal Institute of Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
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Hepatotoxicity of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloid Compound Intermedine: Comparison with Other Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids and Its Toxicological Mechanism. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13120849. [PMID: 34941687 PMCID: PMC8709407 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are common secondary plant compounds with hepatotoxicity. The consumption of herbal medicines and herbal teas containing PAs is one of the main causes of hepatic sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (HSOS), a potentially life-threatening condition. The present study aimed to reveal the mechanism underlying the cytotoxicity of intermedine (Im), the main PA in Comfrey. We evaluated the toxicity of the retronecine-type PAs with different structures to cell lines derived from mammalian tissues, including primary mouse hepatocytes, human hepatocytes (HepD), mouse hepatoma-22 (H22) and human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cells. The cytotoxicity of Im to hepatocyte was evaluated by using cell counting kit-8 assay, colony formation experiment, wound healing assay and dead/live fluorescence imaging. In vitro characterization showed that these PAs were cytotoxic and induced cell apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. We also demonstrated that Im induced cell apoptosis by generating excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS), changing the mitochondrial membrane potential and releasing cytochrome c (Cyt c) before activating the caspase-3 pathway. Importantly, we directly observed the destruction of the cell mitochondrial structure after Im treatment through transmission electron microscopy (TEM). This study provided the first direct evidence of Im inducing hepatotoxicity through mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. These results supplemented the basic toxicity data of PAs and facilitated the comprehensive and systematic evaluation of the toxicity caused by PA compounds.
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10
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Enge AM, Kaltner F, Gottschalk C, Kin A, Kirstgen M, Geyer J, These A, Hammer H, Pötz O, Braeuning A, Hessel-Pras S. Organic Cation Transporter I and Na + /taurocholate Co-Transporting Polypeptide are Involved in Retrorsine- and Senecionine-Induced Hepatotoxicity in HepaRG cells. Mol Nutr Food Res 2021; 66:e2100800. [PMID: 34826203 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.202100800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
SCOPE 1,2-unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are secondary plant metabolites that are found in many plant species throughout the world. They are of concern for risk assessment as consumption of contaminated foodstuff can cause severe liver damage. Of late, transporter-mediated uptake and transport has advanced as a vital determinant of PA toxicity. In this study, the authors investigate a transporter-mediated uptake of PAs and its implications in PA toxicity. METHODS AND RESULTS We show that transporter expression levels are significantly affected by treatment with the PAs senecionine (Sc) and retrorsine (Re) in the human hepatoma cell line HepaRG. Furthermore, the specific contribution to PA uptake of the two transporters Na+ /taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide (SLC10A1) and organic cation transporter I (SLC22A1), both belonging to the heterogeneous solute carrier super family, is investigated by means of a siRNA-mediated knockdown approach. Knockdown of both uptake transporters result in reduced uptake of Re and Sc in a time-dependent manner and attenuated PA-mediated cytotoxic effects in HepaRG cells. CONCLUSION Our results confirm previous findings of active transport mechanisms of PAs into hepatocytes and highlight the importance of toxicokinetic studies for the risk assessment of PAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Margarethe Enge
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Florian Kaltner
- Chair of Food Safety and Analytics, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Schoenleutnerstr. 8, 85764, Oberschleissheim, Germany.,Institute of Food Chemistry and Food Biotechnology, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 17-19, 35392, Giessen, Germany
| | - Christoph Gottschalk
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.,Chair of Food Safety and Analytics, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Schoenleutnerstr. 8, 85764, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Angelina Kin
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael Kirstgen
- Biomedical Research Center Seltersberg (BFS), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Schubertstr. 81, 35392, Giessen, Germany
| | - Joachim Geyer
- Biomedical Research Center Seltersberg (BFS), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Schubertstr. 81, 35392, Giessen, Germany
| | - Anja These
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Helen Hammer
- Signatope GmbH, Markwiesenstr. 55, 72770, Reutlingen, Germany
| | - Oliver Pötz
- Signatope GmbH, Markwiesenstr. 55, 72770, Reutlingen, Germany
| | - Albert Braeuning
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefanie Hessel-Pras
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
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11
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He Y, Zhu L, Ma J, Lin G. Metabolism-mediated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:1917-1942. [PMID: 34003343 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-03060-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) and PA N-oxides are common phytotoxins produced by over 6000 plant species. Humans are frequently exposed to PAs via ingestion of PA-containing herbal products or PA-contaminated foods. PAs require metabolic activation to form pyrrole-protein adducts and pyrrole-DNA adducts which lead to cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. Individual PAs differ in their metabolic activation patterns, which may cause significant difference in toxic potency of different PAs. This review discusses the current knowledge and recent advances of metabolic pathways of different PAs, especially the metabolic activation and metabolism-mediated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity, and the risk evaluation methods of PA exposure. In addition, this review provides perspectives of precision toxicity assessment strategies and biomarker development for the risk control and translational investigations of human intoxication by PAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yisheng He
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Lin Zhu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Jiang Ma
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Ge Lin
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
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12
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Geburek I, Rutz L, Gao L, Küpper JH, These A, Schrenk D. Metabolic Pattern of Hepatotoxic Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Liver Cells. Chem Res Toxicol 2021; 34:1101-1113. [PMID: 33719395 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Contamination with 1,2-unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) is a serious problem for certain phytomedicines, foods, and animal feeds. Several of these PAs are genotoxic and carcinogenic, primarily in the liver, upon cytochrome P450 (CYP)-catalyzed activation into reactive (pyrrolic and pyrrole-like) metabolites. Here we investigated the metabolism of selected PAs (echimidine, europine, lasiocarpine, lycopsamine, retrorsine, and senecionine) in rat hepatocytes in primary culture and in human CYP3A4-transfected HepG2 cells. The open-chained diesters echimidine and lasiocarpine and the cyclic diester senecionine were extensively metabolized in rat hepatocytes into a broad spectrum of products released into the medium. A large portion of unidentified, possibly irreversibly bound, products remained in the cells while detectable amounts of reactive and other metabolites were found in the incubation media. In HepG2-CYP3A4 cells, lasiocarpine was more extensively metabolized than echimidine and senecionine which also gave rise to the release of pyrrolic metabolites. In human cells, no pyrrolic metabolites were detected in retrorsine or lycopsamine incubations, while no such metabolites were detected from europine in both cell types. Other types of metabolic changes comprised modifications such as side chain demethylation or oxygenation reactions like the formation of N-oxides. The latter, considered as a detoxification step, was a major pathway with cyclic diesters, was less distinctive for echimidine and lycopsamine and almost negligible for lasiocarpine and europine. Our data are in agreement with previously published cyto- and genotoxicity findings and suggests that the metabolic pattern may contribute substantially to the specific toxic potency of a certain congener. In addition, marked differences were found for certain congeners between rat hepatocytes and transfected human HepG2 cells, whereby a high level of bioactivation was found for lasiocarpine, whereas a very low level of bioactivation was observed for monoesters, in particular in human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ina Geburek
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Safety in the Food Chain, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Lukas Rutz
- University of Kaiserslautern, Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Lan Gao
- University of Kaiserslautern, Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Jan-Heiner Küpper
- Molecular Cell Biology, Brandenburg University of Technology, Senftenberg 03046, Germany
| | - Anja These
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Safety in the Food Chain, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Dieter Schrenk
- University of Kaiserslautern, Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
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