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Vandeputte MM, Stove CP. Navigating nitazenes: A pharmacological and toxicological overview of new synthetic opioids with a 2-benzylbenzimidazole core. Neuropharmacology 2025; 275:110470. [PMID: 40252758 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2025.110470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2025] [Revised: 03/31/2025] [Accepted: 04/11/2025] [Indexed: 04/21/2025]
Abstract
Since the first identification of isotonitazene on the recreational drug market in 2019, new synthetic opioids (NSOs) with a 2-benzylbenzimidazole core (colloquially known as 'nitazene' opioids) have increased in prevalence. At the end of 2024, 22 different analogues had been identified in Europe, and worrying trends indicate their increasing presence at the street level. Nitazene analogues originate from a series of research articles from the 1950-60s, but were never marketed as analgesics. Recent pharmacological research has shown that different analogues are highly active, with several being more potent than fentanyl in their ability to activate the μ-opioid receptor and produce opioid effects. This high potency, combined with their unpredictability on the recreational drug market, legal status in some regions, and economic appeal to drug producers, has contributed to a growing number of intoxications and fatalities involving nitazene analogues worldwide. This literature review focuses on the pharmaco-toxicology of nitazene opioids and the characteristics of their emergence on the NSO and broader recreational drug markets from 2019 onwards. Aspects that are covered include (a) a systematic approach to the naming of nitazene analogues, (b) trends, prevalence and identifications on the recreational drug market, (c) structure-activity relationships derived from recent in vitro, in vivo, and in silico research, (d) strategies for detection in biological samples and drug material, and (e) the current legal framework. Finally, innovative approaches to navigate this complex landscape are discussed, together with an outlook for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marthe M Vandeputte
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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2
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Gatch MB, Hill RD, Sundar M, Shetty RA. Discriminative stimulus and antinociceptive effects of sixteen nitazene analogs in rodents. Neuropharmacology 2025; 272:110416. [PMID: 40120927 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2025.110416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2024] [Revised: 03/06/2025] [Accepted: 03/18/2025] [Indexed: 03/25/2025]
Abstract
Analogs of the benzimidazole opioid compound, etonitazene, have appeared in the illicit drug market in an attempt to circumvent control of fentanyl analogs. This study examined behavioral effects of 16 nitazene analogs. The discriminative stimulus effects of morphine, fentanyl, butonitazene, clonitazene, N-desethyl isotonitazene, etonitazene, etodesnitazene, 5-methyl etodesnitazene, 5-aminoisotonitazene, isotodesnitazene, isotonitazene, N-piperydinyl etonitazene, N-piperidinyl isotonitazene, N-pyrrolidino etonitazene, N-pyrrolidino isotonitazene, N-pyrrolidino metonitazene, N-pyrrolidino protonitazene, and ethyleneoxynitazene were tested in male Sprague-Dawley rats trained to discriminate morphine from saline. Antinociception was tested using a warm-water tail-flick assay using male Swiss-Webster mice. All the nitazene test compounds fully substituted for the discriminative stimulus effects of morphine and the substitution was blocked by naltrexone. The potencies of the test compounds varied widely with five compounds being 3- to 5-fold more potent than fentanyl (ED50 = 0.009 mg/kg), two compounds being roughly equipotent, and nine compounds being 2- to 170-fold less potent. Similarly, all of nitazene test compounds produced full antinociceptive effects at 50 °C that were blocked by naltrexone. Seven compounds were 7- to 150-fold more potent than fentanyl (ED50 = 0.058 mg/kg), four compounds were approximately equipotent, and five compounds were less 3- to 20-fold less potent. Antinociceptive time courses varied widely, with the duration of peak effects ranging from 15 to 90 min. All benzimidazole analogs tested produced opioid-like effects with a wide range of potencies and time courses. These compounds will likely have substantial liability for illicit use, whether on their own or as contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B Gatch
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA.
| | - R Darbi Hill
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Megana Sundar
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Ritu A Shetty
- Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
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3
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Kozell LB, Eshleman AJ, Wolfrum KM, Swanson TL, Schutzer KA, Schutzer WE, Abbas AI. Pharmacology of newly identified nitazene variants reveals structural determinants of affinity, potency, selectivity for mu opioid receptors. Neuropharmacology 2025; 276:110512. [PMID: 40374158 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2025.110512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2025] [Revised: 04/25/2025] [Accepted: 05/13/2025] [Indexed: 05/17/2025]
Abstract
Nitazenes, a group of synthetic benzimidazole opioids, are a growing public health threat that have been linked to hundreds of deaths within the last five years. New nitazenes are discovered each year in drug samples and toxicology specimens, necessitating rapid pharmacological characterization. We characterized thirteen nitazenes identified by DEA as chemicals of concern, some that have not been previously characterized. We found that most were very high affinity and potency agonists at the mu opioid receptor (MOR) with very high selectivity for MOR versus other opioid receptors. While bulky benzyl substitutions and a lengthier linker reduced affinity and potency for MOR, the majority of nitazenes tested nonetheless exhibited high-to-very high MOR affinity, potency, and selectivity - often greater than that of fentanyl. Three of the nitazenes exhibited a novel pharmacological pattern, with lower selectivity for MOR versus the kappa opioid receptor (KOR), and with a pharmacological profile that more closely resembles morphine than fentanyl. These findings further delineate the chemical determinants of nitazene pharmacology and identify three of the least MOR-selective nitazenes to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura B Kozell
- VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR, 97239, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA; Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Amy J Eshleman
- VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR, 97239, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | | | - Tracy L Swanson
- VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR, 97239, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | | | - William E Schutzer
- VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR, 97239, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Atheir I Abbas
- VA Portland Health Care System, Portland, OR, 97239, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA; Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA.
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4
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Miskulin A, Wallace B, Hore DK, Gill C. Development of a high-resolution paper-spray mass spectrometry method using street drugs for the early detection of emerging drugs in the unregulated supply. Analyst 2025; 150:1872-1883. [PMID: 40159777 DOI: 10.1039/d5an00086f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/02/2025]
Abstract
Adulteration of the unregulated opioid supply has contributed to increasing numbers of overdose deaths in North America. Harm-reduction drug checking has emerged as a strategy to address increasing adulteration rates by providing information about sample composition to people who use drugs. While paper-spray mass spectrometry is capable of trace detection for drug checking, the presence of newly emerging substances often goes undetected if not included in the targeted analysis method. High-resolution mass spectrometry has not been widely used in drug-checking efforts to date, but it has advanced capabilities to facilitate the detection of newly emerging substances. We present a high-resolution paper-spray mass spectrometry method developed for the detection of newly emerging compounds in the street-drug supply. The method was used to analyze a selection of opioid samples received at a drug-checking service in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Using this approach, newly emerging adulterants, precursors and byproducts were identified in the local street-drug supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allie Miskulin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, V8W 3V6, Canada.
| | - Bruce Wallace
- School of Social Work, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, V8W 2Y2, Canada
- Canadian Institute for Substance Use Research, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Dennis K Hore
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, V8W 3V6, Canada.
- Canadian Institute for Substance Use Research, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, V8W 2Y2, Canada
- Department of Computer Science, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, V8W 3P6, Canada
| | - Chris Gill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, V8W 3V6, Canada.
- Canadian Institute for Substance Use Research, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, V8W 2Y2, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, British Columbia, V9R 5S5, Canada.
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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5
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Bade R, Nadarajan D, Hall W, Brown JA, Schumann J. Early identification of the use of potent benzylbenzimidazoles (nitazenes) through wastewater analysis: Two years of data from 22 countries. Addiction 2025. [PMID: 40099983 DOI: 10.1111/add.70027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2025] [Indexed: 03/20/2025]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The use of new synthetic opioids, such as the highly potent 2-benzylbenzimidazoles (i.e. nitazene) drugs, is a global health concern because of their increased risk of fatal overdose. In the early 2020s, nitazene analogues were linked to significant numbers of overdoses in the United States. Their reach is now worldwide, with nitazene overdose deaths reported in Europe, Australia and New Zealand. The aim of this study was to measure quantities of nitazenes in wastewater samples collected from 68 locations in 22 countries, covering six continents, to understand and estimate their use. METHODS Untreated influent wastewater samples were collected over a one-week period that included the New Year period in 2022-2023 and 2023-2024. Samples were collected from 22 countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Cyprus, Czechia, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, New Zealand, Nigeria, Republic of Korea, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom and United States. Samples were loaded onto solid-phase extraction cartridges in the country of collection and sent to Australia for elution and analysis using sensitive liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry methods. RESULTS A total of 683 individual wastewater samples were analysed across the two years: 339 in 2022-2023 and 344 in 2023-2024. Two nitazene analogues-protonitazene and N-pyrrolidino etonitazene (etonitazepyne)-were found in five separate sites in the United States and Australia. In the 2022-2023 period, protonitazene was found in two sites in the United States. The following year, protonitazene was detected in two further sites in the United States, while both protonitazene and etonitazepyne were found in one site in Australia. Protonitazene mass loads ranged between 0.3 mg/day/1000 people and 100 mg/day/1000 people. Etonitazepyne was also found at mass loads between 0.2-2 mg/day/1000 people). CONCLUSIONS A very high mass load of protonitazene was calculated, using wastewater analysis, for the day of 30 December 2023 in one site in Australia. Etonitazepyne showed the same trend from a lower base. Wastewater-based nitazene surveillance shows promise as a form of both drug early warning and ongoing monitoring of trends in use, especially as a complementary tool to existing surveillance methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Bade
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Dutton Park, Australia
| | - Dhayaalini Nadarajan
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Dutton Park, Australia
| | - Wayne Hall
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Dutton Park, Australia
- National Centre for Youth Substance Use Research, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
| | - Jared A Brown
- Toxicity Response, Epidemiology and Surveillance, Centre for Alcohol and Other Drugs, NSW Ministry of Health, St Leonards, Australia
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Jennifer Schumann
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, Southbank, Australia
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, Southbank, Australia
- Monash Addiction Research Centre, Frankston, Australia
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6
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Krotulski AJ, Mata DC, Smith CR, Palmquist-Orlando KB, Modell C, Vikingsson S, Truver MT. Advances in analytical methodologies for detecting novel psychoactive substances: a review. J Anal Toxicol 2025; 49:152-169. [PMID: 39786399 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkae098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2024] [Revised: 11/26/2024] [Accepted: 12/26/2024] [Indexed: 01/12/2025] Open
Abstract
Novel psychoactive substances (NPSs) have historically been difficult compounds to analyze in forensic toxicology. The identification, detection, and quantitation of these analytes and their metabolites have been difficult due to their rapid emergence, short lifespan, and various potencies. Advancements in analytical instrumentation are fundamental to mitigating these NPS challenges by providing reliable identification and sensitivity. This review discusses the pros and cons of various analytical instruments that have played a pivotal role in NPS analysis. As analytical technology advanced, the ability to analyze for NPS became easier with high-resolution mass spectrometry (MS); however, traditional immunoassays are still beneficial for some NPS classes such as benzodiazepines. Over 200 articles from 2010-23 were reviewed, and 180 were utilized for this review. Journal articles were categorized according to the technology used during analysis: immunoassay, gas chromatography-MS, liquid chromatography-MS-low resolution, and liquid chromatography-MS-high resolution to allow for quick references based on a laboratory's technologies. Journal articles were organized in table format to outline the authors, NPS drug classes, and instrumentation used, among other important information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Horsham, PA, United States
- Society of Forensic Toxicologists Novel Psychoactive Substances Committee
| | - Dani C Mata
- Orange County Crime Lab, Santa Ana, CA, United States
- Society of Forensic Toxicologists Novel Psychoactive Substances Committee
| | | | | | - Celia Modell
- South Carolina Law Enforcement Division, Columbia, SC, United States
- Society of Forensic Toxicologists Novel Psychoactive Substances Committee
| | - Svante Vikingsson
- Center for Forensic Science Advancement and Application, RTI International, Durham, NC, United States
- Society of Forensic Toxicologists Novel Psychoactive Substances Committee
| | - Michael T Truver
- Department of Pathology, Immunology, and Laboratory Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, United States
- Society of Forensic Toxicologists Novel Psychoactive Substances Committee
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7
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Maruejouls C, Ameline A, Gheddar L, Mazoyer C, Teston K, Aknouche F, Kintz P. First evidence in an oversea French department of the deadly risk of protonitazene use: about 5 post mortem cases. Int J Legal Med 2025; 139:87-93. [PMID: 39168895 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-024-03309-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 08/07/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024]
Abstract
Protonitazene is a synthetic benzoimidazole opioid of the nitazenes class, developed in the 1950s as an effective analgesic, but never released in the market due to severe side effects and major risk of dependence. The laboratory was involved in the determination of the cause of death for 5 subjects deceased in a French department of the Indian Ocean. The 5 victims were male, aged between 20 and 35 years. The first 2 victims were found dead in their prison cell and the 3 other victims were found dead in a squat. Therefore, we have developed and validated a specific procedure to identify and quantify the drug in post mortem specimens using LC-MS/MS. The procedure involves extraction of 0.5 mL fluid at pH 9.5 with a mixture of organic solvents in presence of 20 ng fentanyl-d5 used as internal standard. Linearity of the method was verified from 0.1 to 20 ng/mL in both whole blood and urine (r2 = 0.9983 and 0.9993, respectively). The limit of detection was estimated at 0.05 ng/mL in each matrix. Protonitazene was identified at < LOQ to 0.8 ng/mL, 0.4 to 2.9 ng/mL and 3.0 to 8.0 ng/mL in femoral blood, urine and bile, respectively. Post mortem concentrations were very low, which is consistent with reported high toxicity of protonitazene. As nitazenes represent a growing threat to public health in various parts of the world, this method seems to be a good response to the challenges posed by the identification of this class of substances.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alice Ameline
- Institut de médecine légale, 11 rue Humann, Strasbourg, 67000, France
| | - Laurie Gheddar
- Institut de médecine légale, 11 rue Humann, Strasbourg, 67000, France
| | - Cédric Mazoyer
- Laboratoire SYNLAB Réunion, 19 ter rue Balbolia, Saint-Paul, 97460, France
| | - Kati Teston
- Laboratoire SYNLAB Réunion, 19 ter rue Balbolia, Saint-Paul, 97460, France
| | - Frédéric Aknouche
- Laboratoire SYNLAB Réunion, 19 ter rue Balbolia, Saint-Paul, 97460, France
| | - Pascal Kintz
- Institut de médecine légale, 11 rue Humann, Strasbourg, 67000, France.
- X-Pertise Consulting, 42 rue Principale, Mittelhausbergen, 67206, France.
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8
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Monti MC, De Vrieze LM, Vandeputte MM, Persson M, Gréen H, Stove CP, Schlotterbeck G. Detection of N-desethyl etonitazene in a drug checking sample: Chemical analysis and pharmacological characterization of a recent member of the 2-benzylbenzimidazole "nitazene" class. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2024; 251:116453. [PMID: 39216307 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2024.116453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2024] [Revised: 08/22/2024] [Accepted: 08/24/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
The emergence of 2-benzylbenzimidazole "nitazene" opioids is stirring up the recreational synthetic opioid market. Many nitazene analogues act as potent agonists at the µ‑opioid receptor (MOR), as demonstrated in various in vitro and in vivo studies. Severe intoxication and overdose deaths associated with nitazene analogues are increasingly being reported. Nitazene opioids are classified as a public health threat, stressing the need for close monitoring of new developments on the recreational drug market. This study reports on the detection of N-desethyl etonitazene in a sample handed in by a recreational drug user at a Swiss drug checking service in August 2023. The person bought the sample through an internet source where it was stated to contain isotonitazene. Chemical analyses were conducted to characterize the sample, i.e. nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), capillary electrophoresis (CE), and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). The sample was additionally investigated using two different in vitro MOR activation assays. NMR and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to HRMS confirmed the presence of N-desethyl etonitazene at a high purity and in the absence of isotonitazene and etonitazene. N-Desethyl nitazene analogues have been detected before as metabolites of isotonitazene and etonitazene. However, as first seen with N-desethyl isotonitazene, they are now emerging as standalone drugs. The applied bioassays demonstrated increased efficacy and approximately 6-9-fold higher potency of N-desethyl etonitazene at MOR compared to fentanyl. N-Desethyl etonitazene showed EC50 values of 3.35 nM and 0.500 nM in the β-arrestin 2 recruitment and Aequoscreen® assays, respectively. The opioid activity present in the collected sample was additionally evaluated using the bioassays and showed good overlap with the reference standard, in line with the analytical purity assessment. This demonstrates the potential of these bioassays to provide a rapid opioid activity assessment of authentic samples. The emergence of other N-desethyl nitazene analogues must be considered during forensic and clinical toxicology casework, to avoid misclassification of intake of such analogues as metabolites. Finally, drug checking services enable the close monitoring of market developments and trends and are of great value for early warning and harm reduction purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela C Monti
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
| | - Liam M De Vrieze
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marthe M Vandeputte
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mattias Persson
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Henrik Gréen
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden; Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Götz Schlotterbeck
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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9
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Vandeputte MM, Glatfelter GC, Walther D, Layle NK, St Germaine DM, Ujváry I, Iula DM, Baumann MH, Stove CP. Characterization of novel nitazene recreational drugs: Insights into their risk potential from in vitro µ-opioid receptor assays and in vivo behavioral studies in mice. Pharmacol Res 2024; 210:107503. [PMID: 39521025 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2024.107503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2024] [Revised: 11/06/2024] [Accepted: 11/06/2024] [Indexed: 11/16/2024]
Abstract
2-Benzylbenzimidazole derivatives or 'nitazenes' are increasingly present on the recreational drug market. Here, we report the synthesis and pharmacological characterization of 15 structurally diverse nitazenes that might be predicted to emerge or grow in popularity. This work expands the existing knowledge about 2-benzylbenzimidazole structure-activity relationships (SARs), while also helping stakeholders (e.g., forensic toxicologists, clinicians, policymakers) in their risk assessment and preparedness for the potential next generation of nitazenes. In vitro µ-opioid receptor (MOR) affinity was determined via competition radioligand (3[H]DAMGO) binding assays in rat brain tissue. MOR activation (potency and efficacy) was studied by means of a cell-based β-arrestin 2 recruitment assay. For seven nitazenes, including etonitazene, opioid-like pharmacodynamic effects (antinociception, locomotor activity, body temperature changes) were evaluated after subcutaneous administration in male C57BL/6 J mice. The results showed that all nitazenes bound to MOR with nanomolar affinities, and the functional potency of several of them was comparable to or exceeded that of fentanyl. In vivo, dose-dependent effects were observed for antinociception, locomotor activity, and body temperature changes in mice. SAR insights included the high opioid-like activity of methionitazene, iso-butonitazene, sec-butonitazene, and the etonitazene analogues 1-ethyl-pyrrolidinylmethyl N-desalkyl etonitazene and ethylene etonitazene. The most potent analogue of the panel across all functional assays was α'-methyl etonitazene. Taken together, through critical pharmacological evaluation, this work provides a framework for strengthened preparedness and risk assessments of current and future nitazenes that have the potential to cause harm to users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marthe M Vandeputte
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Grant C Glatfelter
- Designer Drug Research Unit (DDRU), Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
| | - Donna Walther
- Designer Drug Research Unit (DDRU), Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
| | - Nathan K Layle
- Forensic Chemistry Division, Cayman Chemical Company, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA.
| | | | | | - Donna M Iula
- Forensic Chemistry Division, Cayman Chemical Company, Ann Arbor, MI 48108, USA.
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit (DDRU), Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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10
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Vandeputte MM, Bilel S, Tirri M, Corli G, Bassi M, Layle NK, Fantinati A, Walther D, Iula DM, Baumann MH, Stove CP, Marti M. Elucidating the harm potential of brorphine analogues as new synthetic opioids: Synthesis, in vitro, and in vivo characterization. Neuropharmacology 2024; 260:110113. [PMID: 39154855 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2024.110113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 08/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
The emergence of new synthetic opioids (NSOs) has added complexity to recreational opioid markets worldwide. While NSOs with diverse chemical structures have emerged, brorphine currently remains the only NSO with a piperidine benzimidazolone scaffold. However, the emergence of new generations of NSOs, including brorphine analogues, can be anticipated. This study explored the pharmaco-toxicological, opioid-like effect profile of brorphine alongside its non-brominated analogue (orphine) and three other halogenated analogues (fluorphine, chlorphine, iodorphine). In vitro, radioligand binding assays in rat brain tissue indicated that all analogues bind to the μ-opioid receptor (MOR) with nM affinity. While analogues with smaller-sized substituents showed the highest MOR affinity, further in vitro characterization via two cell-based (HEK 293T) MOR activation (β-arrestin 2 and mini-Gαi recruitment) assays indicated that chlorphine, brorphine, and iodorphine were generally the most active MOR agonists. None of the compounds showed significant in vitro biased agonism compared to hydromorphone. In vivo, we investigated the effects of intraperitoneal (IP) administration of the benzimidazolones (0.01-15 mg/kg) on mechanical and thermal antinociception in male CD-1 mice. Chlorphine and brorphine overall induced the highest levels of antinociception. Furthermore, the effects on respiratory changes induced by a fixed dose (15 mg/kg IP) of the compounds were investigated using non-invasive plethysmography. Fluorphine-, chlorphine-, and brorphine-induced respiratory depressant effects were the most pronounced. For some compounds, pretreatment with naloxone (6 mg/kg IP) could not reverse respiratory depression. Taken together, brorphine-like piperidine benzimidazolones are opioid agonists that have the potential to cause substantial harm to users should they emerge as NSOs. This article is part of the Special Issue on "Novel Synthetic Opioids (NSOs)".
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Affiliation(s)
- Marthe M Vandeputte
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sabrine Bilel
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Micaela Tirri
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Giorgia Corli
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Marta Bassi
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Nathan K Layle
- Forensic Chemistry Division, Cayman Chemical Company, Ann Arbor, MI, 48108, USA
| | - Anna Fantinati
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Donna Walther
- Designer Drug Research Unit (DDRU), Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Donna M Iula
- Forensic Chemistry Division, Cayman Chemical Company, Ann Arbor, MI, 48108, USA
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit (DDRU), Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Matteo Marti
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy; Collaborative Center of the National Early Warning System, Department for Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Italy.
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11
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Vitrano A, Di Giorgi A, Abbate V, Basile G, La Maida N, Pichini S, Di Trana A. Evaluation of Short-Term Stability of Different Nitazenes Psychoactive Opioids in Dried Blood Spots by Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:12332. [PMID: 39596397 PMCID: PMC11594323 DOI: 10.3390/ijms252212332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2024] [Revised: 11/06/2024] [Accepted: 11/16/2024] [Indexed: 11/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Nitazenes represent a new synthetic opioids sub-class belonging to new psychoactive substances (NPSs). Their high pharmacological potency has led to numerous intoxications and fatalities, even at minimum doses. The aim of this study was to assess the stability of four nitazenes (etazene, flunitazene, isotonitazene and protonitazene) in dried blood spot (DBS) samples at different storage temperatures (room temperature and 4 °C) and determine the optimal storage conditions. Moreover, we developed and validated a new and fast liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry method by the optimization of chromatographic conditions with the use of a different chromatographic column and mobile phases. Two concentrations, 1 and 5 ng/mL, were chosen based on the available data on nitazenes-related intoxications and their stability was evaluated at days 0 (control), 1, 7 and 30. The results showed that all analytes at 1 ng/mL were not detectable after 30 days at room temperature; a similar pattern was observed for 1 ng/mL etazene and isotonitazene samples when stored at 4 °C, whereas flunitazene and protonitazene decreased to a mean of 66% and 69% initial concentrations, respectively, at day 30. Differently, all analytes at 5 ng/mL were quantified above 44% and 41% initial concentrations at room temperature and 4 °C, respectively, showing a higher stability. The study of nitazenes stability in DBSs represents an important tool to determine the optimal sample storage conditions, such as temperature and time between sample collection and analysis. In contrast to another study, our study showed distinct stability behaviors for every investigated analyte, which also depended on the concentration. Therefore, it is difficult to define an optimal storage condition acceptable for all nitazenes. Room temperature proved to be the best medium- and long-term storage conditions for the highest concentrations, but the stability of low levels of flunitazene and protonitazene improved at 4 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Vitrano
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King’s College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK; (A.V.); (V.A.)
| | - Alessandro Di Giorgi
- Department of Biomedical Science and Public Health, University “Politecnica delle Marche” of Ancona, Via Tronto 10/a, 60124 Ancona, Italy; (A.D.G.); (G.B.)
| | - Vincenzo Abbate
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King’s College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK; (A.V.); (V.A.)
| | - Giuseppe Basile
- Department of Biomedical Science and Public Health, University “Politecnica delle Marche” of Ancona, Via Tronto 10/a, 60124 Ancona, Italy; (A.D.G.); (G.B.)
| | - Nunzia La Maida
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, V. Le Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy; (N.L.M.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Simona Pichini
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, V. Le Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy; (N.L.M.); (A.D.T.)
| | - Annagiulia Di Trana
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, V. Le Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy; (N.L.M.); (A.D.T.)
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12
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Davis MP, DiScala S, Davis A. Respiratory Depression Associated with Opioids: A Narrative Review. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2024; 25:1438-1450. [PMID: 39432171 DOI: 10.1007/s11864-024-01274-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/10/2024] [Indexed: 10/22/2024]
Abstract
OPINION All opioids have a risk of causing respiratory depression and reduced cerebral circulation. Fentanyl has the greatest risk of causing both. This is particularly a concern when combined with illicit opioids such as diamorphine (also known as heroin). Fentanyl should not be used as a frontline potent opioid due its significant risks. Buprenorphine, a schedule III opioid, morphine, or hydromorphone is preferred, followed by oxycodone, which has a significant risk of abuse relative to buprenorphine and morphine. Although all opioids were equally effective in producing analgesia, the relative safety of each opioid is no longer a secondary concern when prescribing. In the face of an international opioid epidemic, clinicians need to choose opioid analgesics safely, wisely, and carefully.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sandra DiScala
- West Palm Beach VA Healthcare System, West Palm Beach, Florida, USA
| | - Amy Davis
- Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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13
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Kintz P, Ameline A, Gheddar L, Pichini S, Mazoyer C, Teston K, Aknouche F, Maruejouls C. Testing for protonitazene in human hair using LC-MS-MS. J Anal Toxicol 2024; 48:630-635. [PMID: 38836591 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkae050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Protonitazene is a synthetic benzimidazole opioid of the nitazenes class, developed in the 1950s as an effective analgesic, but never released on the market due to severe side effects and possible dependence. Despite its increasing use as a new psychoactive substance starting in 2019, its detection in human hair of intoxicated and deceased consumers has never been reported. We present the development and validation of a specific procedure to identify protonitazene in hair by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. Drugs were incubated overnight at 40°C in 1 mL borate buffer, pH 9.5 with 20 mg pulverized hair and 1 ng/mg fentanyl-d5 used as internal standard. Drugs were then extracted with a mixture of organic solvents. The chromatographic separation was performed using an HSS C18 column with a 15-min gradient elution. Linearity was verified from 1 to 100 pg/mg. The limit of detection was estimated at 0.1 pg/mg. No interference was noted from a large panel of natural and synthetic opioids, fentanyl derivatives, or other new synthetic opioids. Protonitazene was identified at 70 and >7600 pg/mg in the whole head hair specimens of two male subjects deceased from an acute drug overdose in jail. Protonitazene was also identified at 14 and 54 pg/mg in two living co-prisoners. As nitazenes represent a growing threat to public health in various parts of the world, this method was developed in response to the challenges posed by the identification of this class of substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Kintz
- Laboratoire de toxicologie, Institut de médecine légale, Strasbourg 67000, France
- Science and research, X-Pertise Consulting, Mittelhausbergen 67206, France
| | - Alice Ameline
- Laboratoire de toxicologie, Institut de médecine légale, Strasbourg 67000, France
| | - Laurie Gheddar
- Laboratoire de toxicologie, Institut de médecine légale, Strasbourg 67000, France
| | - Simona Pichini
- Toxicology, Istituto Superiore di Sanita, Roma 00161, Italy
| | - Cédric Mazoyer
- Toxicology, Laboratoire Synlab Réunion, Saint-Paul 97411, France
| | - Katy Teston
- Toxicology, Laboratoire Synlab Réunion, Saint-Paul 97411, France
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14
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De Vrieze LM, Walton SE, Pottie E, Papsun D, Logan BK, Krotulski AJ, Stove CP, Vandeputte MM. In vitro structure-activity relationships and forensic case series of emerging 2-benzylbenzimidazole 'nitazene' opioids. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:2999-3018. [PMID: 38877156 PMCID: PMC11324687 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03774-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
2-Benzylbenzimidazole 'nitazene' opioids are presenting a growing threat to public health. Although various nitazenes were previously studied, systematic comparisons of the effects of different structural modifications to the 2-benzylbenzimidazole core structure on μ-opioid receptor (MOR) activity are limited. Here, we assessed in vitro structure-activity relationships of 9 previously uncharacterized nitazenes alongside known structural analogues. Specifically, we focused on MOR activation by 'ring' substituted analogues (i.e., N-pyrrolidino and N-piperidinyl modifications), 'desnitazene' analogues (lacking the 5-nitro group), and N-desethyl analogues. The results from two in vitro MOR activation assays (β-arrestin 2 recruitment and inhibition of cAMP accumulation) showed that 'ring' modifications overall yield highly active drugs. With the exception of 4'-OH analogues (which are metabolites), N-pyrrolidino substitutions were generally more favorable for MOR activation than N-piperidine substitutions. Furthermore, removal of the 5-nitro group on the benzimidazole ring consistently caused a pronounced decrease in potency. The N-desethyl modifications showed important MOR activity, and generally resulted in a slightly lowered potency than comparator nitazenes. Intriguingly, N-desethyl isotonitazene was the exception and was consistently more potent than isotonitazene. Complementing the in vitro findings and demonstrating the high harm potential associated with many of these compounds, we describe 85 forensic cases from North America and the United Kingdom involving etodesnitazene, N-desethyl etonitazene, N-desethyl isotonitazene, N-pyrrolidino metonitazene, and N-pyrrolidino protonitazene. The low-to-sub ng/mL blood concentrations observed in most cases underscore the drugs' high potencies. Taken together, by bridging pharmacology and case data, this study may aid to increase awareness and guide legislative and public health efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam M De Vrieze
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sara E Walton
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, PA, 19090, USA
| | - Eline Pottie
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Barry K Logan
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, PA, 19090, USA
- NMS Labs, Horsham, PA, 19044, USA
| | - Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, PA, 19090, USA
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Marthe M Vandeputte
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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15
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Gundersen POM, Pasin D, Slørdal L, Spigset O, Josefsson M. Retrospective screening of new psychoactive substances (NPS) in post mortem samples from 2014 to 2021. Forensic Sci Int 2024; 361:112131. [PMID: 38981414 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.112131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Systematic retrospective processing of previously analysed biological samples has been proven to be a valuable tool in the search for new drugs (e.g. new psychoactive substances (NPS)) and for quality assessment in clinical and forensic toxicology. In a previous study, we developed a strategy for retrospective data-analysis using a personalized library of synthetic cannabinoids, designer benzodiazepines and synthetic opioids obtained from the crowdsourced database HighResNPS (https://highresnps.com). In this study, the same strategy was employed for the compounds within the groups of NPS that were not previously included such as synthetic cathinones, phenethylamines, aminoindanes, arylalkylamines, piperazine derivates, piperidines, pyrrolidines, indolalkylamines and arylcyclohexylamines. Synthetic opioids and designer benzodiazepines, which were not part of the previous study, were also included. To enhance the effectiveness of the retrospective analysis, a predicted retention time was included for all entries. Data files from the analysis of 2186 forensic post mortem samples with an Agilent Technologies 6540 ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS) performed in the laboratory from January 2014 to December 2021 were retrospectively processed with the up-to-date library. Tentative findings were classified in two groups: The findings where MS/MS data was acquired for library match (category 1) and the less certain findings where such data lacked (category 2). Five compounds of category 1 (three synthetic cathinones and two indolalkylamines) were identified in 12 samples. Only one of the findings, 4-MEAPP (4-methyl-α-ethylaminopentiophenone), was deemed plausible after reviewing case information. As many as 501 presumably positive category 2 findings were detected. Using the predicted retention time as an additional criterion the number was significantly reduced but still too high for a manual review. This work has demonstrated that the strategy developed in the previous study can be applied to other NPS groups. However, it is important to note the limitations such a method may have in detecting compounds at very low concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Ole M Gundersen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, St. Olav University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Daniel Pasin
- Forensic Laboratory Division, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, San Francisco, CA 94124, United States
| | - Lars Slørdal
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, St. Olav University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Olav Spigset
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, St. Olav University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway; Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Martin Josefsson
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden; National Forensic Centre, Drug Unit, Linköping, Sweden
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16
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Berardinelli D, Taoussi O, Carlier J, Tini A, Zaami S, Sundermann T, Busardò FP, Auwärter V. In vitro, in vivo metabolism and quantification of the novel synthetic opioid N-piperidinyl etonitazene (etonitazepipne). Clin Chem Lab Med 2024; 62:1580-1590. [PMID: 38311816 DOI: 10.1515/cclm-2023-1360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/06/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES N-piperidinyl etonitazene (etonitazepipne) is a newly synthesized opioid related to the 2-benzylbenzimidazole analog class. Etonitazepipne has been formally notified and placed under intensive monitoring in Europe in January 2022. Nitazenes have high affinity at µ-opioid receptor (MOR). Etonitazepipne, specifically shows a EC50 of 2.49 nM, suggesting about 50 times higher potency combined with higher efficacy compared to morphine. Antinociceptive potency l ('hot plate test' with rats) was 192-fold greater than that of morphine. METHODS Here we report on a post-mortem case involving etonitazepipne and its quantification using a standard addition method (SAM) through liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In addition, characterization and identification of phase I human metabolites using in vitro assay based on pooled human liver microsomes (pHLM) was performed along with the analysis of authentic urine samples by means of high-performance liquid chromatography high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS). RESULTS The concentration of etonitazepipne in post-mortem blood and urine was 8.3 and 11 ng/mL, respectively. SAM was validated by assessing the following parameters: intraday and interday repeatability, matrix effect and recovery rate in post-mortem blood. A total of 20 and 14 metabolites were identified after pHLM incubation and urine analysis, respectively. Most pronounced in vitro and in vivo transformations were O-deethylation, hydroxylation, ketone reduction, and combinations thereof. CONCLUSIONS Considering small traces of the parent drug often found in real cases, the identification of metabolic biomarkers is crucial to identify exposure to this drug. O-deethylated, oxidated metabolites, and combination thereof are proposed as urinary biomarkers along with the parent compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diletta Berardinelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
- Forensic Toxicology, Institute for Legal Medicine, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Omayema Taoussi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
| | - Jeremy Carlier
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
| | - Anastasio Tini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
| | - Simona Zaami
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Tom Sundermann
- Institute of Forensic and Traffic Medicine, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Ancona, Italy
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Forensic Toxicology, Institute for Legal Medicine, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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17
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Jadhav GR, Fasinu PS. Metabolic characterization of the new benzimidazole synthetic opioids - nitazenes. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1434573. [PMID: 39092223 PMCID: PMC11291330 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1434573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The recent re-emergence and the increasing popularity of nitazenes, a group of new synthetic opioids (NSO) that belong to the benzimidazole chemical class, has raised public health concerns. As a class of potential opioid analgesic agents whose development was discontinued in the 1960s due to their high potential for abuse, very little is known about their metabolism and physiologic disposition. In the current study, three nitazenes-butonitazene, isotonitazene and protonitaze were incubated in human liver microsomes (HLM), human S9 (HS9) fractions and recombinant cytochrome P450 enzymes. All three nitazenes were rapidly metabolized in both HLM and HS9 with over 95% depletion within 60 min. In HLM, butonitazene, isotonitazene and protonitazene had in vitro intrinsic clearance (CLint) (µL/min/mg protein) values of 309, 221 and 216 respectively compared to 150 of verapamil, the positive control. In HS9, CLint values were 217, 139, and 150 for butonitazene, isotonitazene and protonitazene respectively compared to only 35 for testosterone, the control probe substrate. Putative metabolite identified from this study include products of hydroxylation, desethylation, dealkylation, desethylation followed by dealkylation, and desethylation followed by hydroxylation. The metabolic phenotyping showed CYP2D6, CYP2B6 and CYP2C8 and the major hepatic enzymes responsible for the metabolism of nitazenes. Within 30 min of incubation, CYP2D6 depleted butonitazene (99%), isotonitazene (72%) and butonitazene (100%) significantly. The rapid metabolism of nitazenes may be an important factor in accurate and timely detections and quantitation of the unchanged drugs in human matrices following intoxication or in forensic analysis. The involvement of multiple polymorphic CYPs in their metabolism may play important roles in the susceptibility to intoxication and/or addiction, depending on the activity of the metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pius S. Fasinu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Heersink School of Medicine, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
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18
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Ameline A, Gheddar L, Pichini S, Stove C, Aknouche F, Maruejouls C, Raul JS, Kintz P. In vitro characterization of protonitazene metabolites, using human liver microsomes, and first application to two urines collected from death cases. Clin Chim Acta 2024; 561:119764. [PMID: 38844019 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2024.119764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2024] [Revised: 06/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
Protonitazene, or N,N-diethyl-5-nitro-2-[(4-propoxyphenyl)methyl]-1H-benzimidazole-1-ethanamine, is a novel synthetic opioid, which belongs to the nitazene family. Over the last four years, nitazenes have re-emerged on the new psychoactive substances market and have been reported in several fatal intoxication cases. The metabolism of several nitazene analogues have already been studied, but to date, no data exists regarding protonitazene. The aim of the study was the detection of protonitazene and its metabolites in authentic human urine collected in two fatal intoxication cases, comparing the data after in vitro incubation with human liver microsomes, and subsequent analysis by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Protonitazene metabolites, including N-desethyl-protonitazene, 5-amino-protonitazene and 4-hydroxy-nitazene, were characterized in vitro and were identified in the urine of both cases. The ratios between metabolites and parent protonitazene, higher than 1, were calculated to estimate the proportionality of metabolites. The results suggest that testing protonitazene metabolites should increase the window detection of exposure to protonitazene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Ameline
- Institut de Médecine Légale, 11 rue Humann, 67085 Strasbourg, France.
| | - Laurie Gheddar
- Institut de Médecine Légale, 11 rue Humann, 67085 Strasbourg, France
| | - Simona Pichini
- Istituto Superiore di Sanita, 299 viale Regina Elena, 00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Christophe Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Campus Heymans, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Frédéric Aknouche
- Laboratoire SYNLAB Réunion, 19 ter rue Balbolia, 97460 Saint-Paul, France
| | | | | | - Pascal Kintz
- Institut de Médecine Légale, 11 rue Humann, 67085 Strasbourg, France; X-Pertise Consulting, 42 rue Principale, 67026 Mittelhausbergen, France
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19
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Gray A, Douglas S, Tiller M, Bleakley M. Using forensic intelligence as a model for determining future toxicology methods: TBI forensic toxicology and forensic drug chemistry nitazene identification. J Anal Toxicol 2024; 48:463-467. [PMID: 38648400 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkae035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The Tennessee Bureau of Investigation (TBI) serves all 95 counties of Tennessee, but the data included in this article are primarily focused in Upper East and East Tennessee (the parts of the state included in the eastern time zone). The forensic chemistry (seized drug) unit of the TBI began reporting nitazene analogues in late 2019. The primary analogues found in forensic chemistry cases were isotonitazene and metonitazene. After discussion and review of reporting statistics, the forensic toxicology unit began to monitor for these compounds in toxicology samples by using ion characteristics with the nitazene analogues. Between March 2021 and December 2023, TBI toxicology received 49,639 cases statewide. Of those, 20,105 (40.5%) received toxicology testing. Approximately 95% of TBI toxicology cases are related to Driving Under the Influence (DUI)/motor vehicle-related incidents. Fatal overdoses and cases from the medical examiner office comprise <5% of TBI toxicology caseload. The toxicology section utilizes the SCIEX 3200 Qtrap with a SCIEX Exion LC AC autosampler system to monitor multiple reaction monitoring transition of nitazene analogues. The ion monitoring for two nitazene analogues, isotonitazene and metonitazene, started in March 2021. Ion monitoring should not be construed as a confirmed result but rather as an indication that a drug may be present. A comparison of this data from the forensic toxicology and forensic chemistry units revealed the rise of new drugs that required a more in-depth review to understand the magnitude and scope. This article is also intended to encourage collaboration between forensic toxicology and forensic chemistry (seized drug) units.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Gray
- Tennessee Bureau of Investigation, 1791 Neals Commerce Ln, Knoxville, TN 37914, USA
| | - Sarah Douglas
- Tennessee Bureau of Investigation, 901 R.S. Gass Blvd, Nashville, TN 37216, USA
| | - Michael Tiller
- Tennessee Bureau of Investigation, 1791 Neals Commerce Ln, Knoxville, TN 37914, USA
| | - Michael Bleakley
- Tennessee Bureau of Investigation, 1791 Neals Commerce Ln, Knoxville, TN 37914, USA
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20
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Taoussi O, Berardinelli D, Zaami S, Tavoletta F, Basile G, Kronstrand R, Auwärter V, Busardò FP, Carlier J. Human metabolism of four synthetic benzimidazole opioids: isotonitazene, metonitazene, etodesnitazene, and metodesnitazene. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:2101-2116. [PMID: 38582802 PMCID: PMC11169013 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03735-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Following isotonitazene scheduling in 2019, the availability of alternative 2-benzylbenzimidazole opioids (nitazenes) on the global drug market increased, resulting in many fatalities worldwide. Nitazenes are potent µ-opioid receptor agonists with strong narcotic/analgesic effects, and their concentrations in biological matrices are low, making the detection of metabolite biomarkers of consumption crucial to document use in clinical and forensic settings. However, there is little to no data on the metabolism of the most recently available nitazenes, especially desnitro-analogues. The aim of the research was to assess isotonitazene, metonitazene, etodesnitazene, and metodesnitazene human metabolism and identify specific metabolite biomarkers of consumption. The four analogues were incubated with 10-donor-pooled human hepatocytes, and the incubates were analyzed by liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry and data mining with Compound Discoverer (Thermo Scientific); the analysis was supported by in silico metabolite predictions with GLORYx open-access software. Metabolites were identified in postmortem blood and/or urine samples from two metonitazene-positive and three etodesnitazene-positive cases following the same workflow, with and without glucuronide hydrolysis in urine, to confirm in vitro results. Twelve, nine, twenty-two, and ten metabolites were identified for isotonitazene, metonitazene, etodesnitazene, and metodesnitazene, respectively. The main transformations were N-deethylation at the N,N-diethylethanamine side chain, O-dealkylation, and further O-glucuronidation. In vitro and autopsy results were consistent, demonstrating the efficacy of the 10-donor-pooled human hepatocyte model to predict human metabolism. We suggest the parent and the corresponding O-dealkyl- and N-deethyl-O-dealkyl metabolites as biomarkers of exposure in urine after glucuronide hydrolysis, and the corresponding N-deethyl metabolite as additional biomarker in blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omayema Taoussi
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Via Tronto 10/a, 60126, Ancona AN, Italy
| | - Diletta Berardinelli
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Via Tronto 10/a, 60126, Ancona AN, Italy
| | - Simona Zaami
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopaedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Tavoletta
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Via Tronto 10/a, 60126, Ancona AN, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Basile
- Department of Trauma Surgery, IRCCS Galeazzi Orthopedic Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Robert Kronstrand
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Francesco P Busardò
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Via Tronto 10/a, 60126, Ancona AN, Italy.
| | - Jeremy Carlier
- Unit of Forensic Toxicology, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Marche Polytechnic University, Via Tronto 10/a, 60126, Ancona AN, Italy
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21
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Kozell LB, Eshleman AJ, Wolfrum KM, Swanson TL, Bloom SH, Benware S, Schmachtenberg JL, Schutzer KA, Schutzer WE, Janowsky A, Abbas AI. Pharmacologic Characterization of Substituted Nitazenes at μ, κ, and Δ Opioid Receptors Suggests High Potential for Toxicity. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2024; 389:219-228. [PMID: 38453524 PMCID: PMC11026150 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.123.002052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
The benzimidazole opioids (substituted nitazenes) are highly potent μ opiod receptor (MOR) agonists with heroin- or fentanyl-like effects. These compounds have caused hospitalizations and fatal overdoses. We characterized the in vitro pharmacology and structure-activity relationships of 19 nitazenes with substitutions at three positions of the benzimidazole core. Affinities were assessed using agonist radioligand binding assays at human μ, κ, and Δ opioid receptors (MOR, KOR, and DOR, respectively) heterologously expressed in CHO cells. Notably, for MOR binding, nine substituted nitazenes had significantly higher affinities than fentanyl including N-pyrrolidino etonitazene, N-pyrrilidino isonitazene, and N-desethyl isotonitazene; 13 had subnanomolar affinities. Only metodesnitazene and flunitazene had significantly lower affinities than fentanyl. Affinities for the substituted nitazenes at KOR and DOR relative to MOR were 46- to 2580-fold and 180- to 1280-fold lower, respectively. Functional activities were assessed using [35S]GTPγS binding assays. Four nitazenes had subnanomolar potencies at MOR: N-pyrrolidino etonitazene, N-pyrrilidino isonitazene, N-pyrrilidino protonitazene and N-desethyl isotonitazene. Ten substituted nitazenes had significantly higher potencies than fentanyl. All tested nitazenes were full MOR agonists. Potencies at KOR and DOR relative to MOR were 7.3- to 7920-fold and 24- to 9400-fold lower, respectively. Thus, many of these compounds are high affinity/high potency MOR agonists with elevated potential to elicit toxicity and overdose at low doses. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Substituted nitazenes are a growing public health threat. Although the 19 nitazenes tested vary in their opioid receptor pharmacology, a number are very high affinity, high potency, and high efficacy compounds- higher than fentanyl. Their pharmacology suggests high potential for harm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura B Kozell
- VA Portland Health Care System (L.B.K., A.J.E., K.M.W., T.L.S., S.H.B., S.B., J.L.S., K.A.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), Departments of Psychiatry (L.B.K., A.J.E., T.L.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), and Behavioral Neuroscience (L.B.K., A.J., A.I.A.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Amy J Eshleman
- VA Portland Health Care System (L.B.K., A.J.E., K.M.W., T.L.S., S.H.B., S.B., J.L.S., K.A.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), Departments of Psychiatry (L.B.K., A.J.E., T.L.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), and Behavioral Neuroscience (L.B.K., A.J., A.I.A.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Katherine M Wolfrum
- VA Portland Health Care System (L.B.K., A.J.E., K.M.W., T.L.S., S.H.B., S.B., J.L.S., K.A.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), Departments of Psychiatry (L.B.K., A.J.E., T.L.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), and Behavioral Neuroscience (L.B.K., A.J., A.I.A.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Tracy L Swanson
- VA Portland Health Care System (L.B.K., A.J.E., K.M.W., T.L.S., S.H.B., S.B., J.L.S., K.A.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), Departments of Psychiatry (L.B.K., A.J.E., T.L.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), and Behavioral Neuroscience (L.B.K., A.J., A.I.A.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Shelley H Bloom
- VA Portland Health Care System (L.B.K., A.J.E., K.M.W., T.L.S., S.H.B., S.B., J.L.S., K.A.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), Departments of Psychiatry (L.B.K., A.J.E., T.L.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), and Behavioral Neuroscience (L.B.K., A.J., A.I.A.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Sheila Benware
- VA Portland Health Care System (L.B.K., A.J.E., K.M.W., T.L.S., S.H.B., S.B., J.L.S., K.A.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), Departments of Psychiatry (L.B.K., A.J.E., T.L.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), and Behavioral Neuroscience (L.B.K., A.J., A.I.A.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Jennifer L Schmachtenberg
- VA Portland Health Care System (L.B.K., A.J.E., K.M.W., T.L.S., S.H.B., S.B., J.L.S., K.A.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), Departments of Psychiatry (L.B.K., A.J.E., T.L.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), and Behavioral Neuroscience (L.B.K., A.J., A.I.A.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Kamryn A Schutzer
- VA Portland Health Care System (L.B.K., A.J.E., K.M.W., T.L.S., S.H.B., S.B., J.L.S., K.A.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), Departments of Psychiatry (L.B.K., A.J.E., T.L.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), and Behavioral Neuroscience (L.B.K., A.J., A.I.A.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - William E Schutzer
- VA Portland Health Care System (L.B.K., A.J.E., K.M.W., T.L.S., S.H.B., S.B., J.L.S., K.A.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), Departments of Psychiatry (L.B.K., A.J.E., T.L.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), and Behavioral Neuroscience (L.B.K., A.J., A.I.A.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Aaron Janowsky
- VA Portland Health Care System (L.B.K., A.J.E., K.M.W., T.L.S., S.H.B., S.B., J.L.S., K.A.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), Departments of Psychiatry (L.B.K., A.J.E., T.L.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), and Behavioral Neuroscience (L.B.K., A.J., A.I.A.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
| | - Atheir I Abbas
- VA Portland Health Care System (L.B.K., A.J.E., K.M.W., T.L.S., S.H.B., S.B., J.L.S., K.A.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), Departments of Psychiatry (L.B.K., A.J.E., T.L.S., W.E.S., A.J., A.I.A.), and Behavioral Neuroscience (L.B.K., A.J., A.I.A.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon
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22
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Dahan A, Franko TS, Carroll JW, Craig DS, Crow C, Galinkin JL, Garrity JC, Peterson J, Rausch DB. Fact vs. fiction: naloxone in the treatment of opioid-induced respiratory depression in the current era of synthetic opioids. Front Public Health 2024; 12:1346109. [PMID: 38481848 PMCID: PMC10933112 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1346109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Opioid-induced respiratory depression (OIRD) deaths are ~80,000 a year in the US and are a major public health issue. Approximately 90% of fatal opioid-related deaths are due to synthetic opioids such as fentanyl, most of which is illicitly manufactured and distributed either on its own or as an adulterant to other drugs of abuse such as cocaine or methamphetamine. Other potent opioids such as nitazenes are also increasingly present in the illicit drug supply, and xylazine, a veterinary tranquilizer, is a prevalent additive to opioids and other drugs of abuse. Naloxone is the main treatment used to reverse OIRD and is available as nasal sprays, prefilled naloxone injection devices, and generic naloxone for injection. An overdose needs to be treated as soon as possible to avoid death, and synthetic opioids such as fentanyl are up to 50 times more potent than heroin, so the availability of new, higher-dose, 5-mg prefilled injection or 8-mg intranasal spray naloxone preparations are important additions for emergency treatment of OIRDs, especially by lay people in the community. Higher naloxone doses are expected to reverse a synthetic overdose more rapidly and the current formulations are ideal for use by untrained lay people in the community. There are potential concerns about severe withdrawal symptoms, or pulmonary edema from treatment with high-dose naloxone. However, from the perspective of first responders, the balance of risks would point to administration of naloxone at the dose required to combat the overdose where the risk of death is very high. The presence of xylazines as an adulterant complicates the treatment of OIRDs, as naloxone is probably ineffective, although it will reverse the respiratory depression due to the opioid. For these patients, hospitalization is particularly vital. Education about the benefits of naloxone remains important not only in informing people about how to treat emergency OIRDs but also how to obtain naloxone. A call to emergency services is also essential after administering naloxone because, although the patient may revive, they may overdose again later because of the short half-life of naloxone and the long-lasting potency of fentanyl and its analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Dahan
- Department of Anesthesiology, Anesthesia and Pain Research Unit, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Thomas S. Franko
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, Wilkes University, Wilkes-Barre, PA, United States
| | - James W. Carroll
- White House Office of National Drug Policy, Washington, DC, United States
| | - David S. Craig
- Department of Pharmacy, Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, United States
| | | | | | | | | | - David B. Rausch
- Tennessee Bureau of Investigation, Nashville, TN, United States
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23
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Jones JD, Avila JR, Smith MK, Martinez S. Opioid overdose knowledge among college students compared to experienced opioid users. Drug Alcohol Rev 2024; 43:343-346. [PMID: 37920901 DOI: 10.1111/dar.13770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jermaine D Jones
- Division on Substance Use Disorders, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, USA
| | - Jesus R Avila
- Summer Public Health Scholars Program, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, USA
| | - Mitchell K Smith
- Summer Public Health Scholars Program, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, USA
- School of Public Health, Furman University, Greenville, USA
| | - Suky Martinez
- Division on Substance Use Disorders, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, USA
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24
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Schüller M, Lucic I, Øiestad ÅML, Pedersen-Bjergaard S, Øiestad EL. High-throughput quantification of emerging "nitazene" benzimidazole opioid analogs by microextraction and UHPLC-MS-MS. J Anal Toxicol 2023; 47:787-796. [PMID: 37700512 PMCID: PMC10714918 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkad071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Benzimidazole opioids, often referred to as nitazenes, represent a subgroup of new psychoactive substances with a recent increase in fatal overdoses in the USA and Europe. With a variety of analogs emerging on the illicit drug market, forensic laboratories are challenged to identify these potent drugs. We here present a simple quantitative approach for the determination of nine nitazene analogs, namely, clonitazene, etodesnitazene, etonitazene, etonitazepyne, flunitazene, isotonitazene, metodesnitazene, metonitazene and protonitazene in whole blood using liquid-phase microextraction and electromembrane extraction in a 96-well format and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Green and efficient sample preparation was accomplished by liquid-phase microextraction in a 96-well format and resulted in high extraction yields for all analytes (>81%). Here, blood diluted with buffer (1:1, %v) was extracted from a donor compartment across a thin organic liquid membrane and into an aqueous acceptor solution. The acceptor solution was collected and directly injected into the analysis platform. Chromatographic separation was accomplished with a biphenyl column, allowing for a baseline separation of the structural isomers isotonitazene and protonitazene before detection by multiple reaction monitoring. Validation was performed according to Scientific Working Group of Forensic Toxicology guidelines. The calibration range was from 0.5 to 50 nM (except for protonitazene and clonitazene from 0.1 nM) with good linearity and limits of detection down to 0.01 nM. An AGREEprep assessment was performed to evaluate sample preparation greenness, with a final score of 0.71. Nitazenes represent a current threat to public health, and analytical methods that cover a wide range of these analogs are limited. Here, the described method may assist in the detection of nitazenes in whole blood and prevent these substances from being missed in postmortem investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Schüller
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway
| | - Ivana Lucic
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway
| | - Åse Marit Leere Øiestad
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, P.O. Box 4459 Nydalen, Oslo 0424, Norway
| | - Stig Pedersen-Bjergaard
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, Copenhagen 2100, Denmark
| | - Elisabeth Leere Øiestad
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1068 Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway
- Department of Forensic Sciences, Division of Laboratory Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, P.O. Box 4459 Nydalen, Oslo 0424, Norway
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25
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Glatfelter GC, Vandeputte MM, Chen L, Walther D, Tsai MHM, Shi L, Stove CP, Baumann MH. Alkoxy chain length governs the potency of 2-benzylbenzimidazole 'nitazene' opioids associated with human overdose. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2023; 240:2573-2584. [PMID: 37658878 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-023-06451-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Novel synthetic opioids (NSOs) are emerging in recreational drug markets worldwide. In particular, 2-benzylbenzimidazole 'nitazene' compounds are problematic NSOs associated with serious clinical consequences, including fatal respiratory depression. Evidence from in vitro studies shows that alkoxy chain length can influence the potency of nitazenes at the mu-opioid receptor (MOR). However, structure-activity relationships (SARs) of nitazenes for inducing opioid-like effects in animal models are not well understood compared to relevant opioids contributing to the ongoing opioid crisis (e.g., fentanyl). OBJECTIVES Here, we examined the in vitro and in vivo effects of nitazene analogues with varying alkoxy chain lengths (i.e., metonitazene, etonitazene, isotonitazene, protonitazene, and butonitazene) as compared to reference opioids (i.e., morphine and fentanyl). METHODS AND RESULTS Nitazene analogues displayed nanomolar affinities for MOR in rat brain membranes and picomolar potencies to activate MOR in transfected cells. All compounds induced opioid-like effects on locomotor activity, hot plate latency, and body temperature in male mice, and alkoxy chain length markedly influenced potency. Etonitazene, with an ethoxy chain, was the most potent analogue in MOR functional assays (EC50 = 30 pM, Emax = 103%) and across all in vivo endpoints (ED50 = 3-12 μg/kg). In vivo SARs revealed that ethoxy, isopropoxy, and propoxy chains engendered higher potencies than fentanyl, whereas methoxy and butoxy analogues were less potent. MOR functional potencies, but not MOR affinities, were positively correlated with in vivo potencies to induce opioid effects. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our data show that certain nitazene NSOs are more potent than fentanyl as MOR agonists in mice, highlighting concerns regarding the high potential for overdose in humans who are exposed to these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant C Glatfelter
- Designer Drug Research Unit, National Institute On Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Marthe M Vandeputte
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Li Chen
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, National Institute On Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Donna Walther
- Designer Drug Research Unit, National Institute On Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Meng-Hua M Tsai
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, National Institute On Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Lei Shi
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, National Institute On Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, National Institute On Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
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26
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Abstract
This paper is the forty-fifth consecutive installment of the annual anthological review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system, summarizing articles published during 2022 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides and receptors as well as effects of opioid/opiate agonists and antagonists. The review is subdivided into the following specific topics: molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors (1), the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia in animals (2) and humans (3), opioid-sensitive and opioid-insensitive effects of nonopioid analgesics (4), opioid peptide and receptor involvement in tolerance and dependence (5), stress and social status (6), learning and memory (7), eating and drinking (8), drug abuse and alcohol (9), sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (10), mental illness and mood (11), seizures and neurologic disorders (12), electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (13), general activity and locomotion (14), gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (15), cardiovascular responses (16), respiration and thermoregulation (17), and immunological responses (18).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367, USA.
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27
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Meyer M, Westenberg JN, Jang KL, Choi F, Schreiter S, Mathew N, King C, Lang UE, Vogel M, Krausz RM. Shifting drug markets in North America - a global crisis in the making? Int J Ment Health Syst 2023; 17:36. [PMID: 37880722 PMCID: PMC10598952 DOI: 10.1186/s13033-023-00601-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding drug market dynamics and their underlying driving factors is paramount to developing effective responses to the overdose crisis in North America. This paper summarises the distinct drug market trends observed locally and internationally over the past decade to extrapolate future drug market trajectories. The emergence of fentanyl on North American street markets from 2014 onwards led to a shift of street drug use patterns. Previously perceived as contaminants, novel synthetic opioids became the drugs of choice and a trend towards higher potency was observed across various substance classes. The diversification of distribution strategies as well as the regionalisation and industrialisation of production followed basic economic principles that were heavily influenced by prosecution and policy makers. Particularly, the trend towards higher potency is likely most indicative of what to expect from future illicit drug market developments. Nitazenes and fentanyl-analogues, several times more potent than fentanyl itself, are increasingly detected in toxicological testing and have the potential of becoming the drugs of choice in the future. The dynamic of drug import and local production is less clear and influenced by a multitude of factors like precursor availability, know-how, infrastructure, and the success of local drug enforcement strategies. Drug market dynamics and the current trajectory towards ultrapotent opioids need to be recognised by legislation, enforcement, and the health care system to prepare effective responses. Without significant improvements in treatment access, the implementation of preventative approaches and early warning systems, the mortality rate will continue to increase. Furthermore, there is no mechanism in place preventing the currently North American focused overdose crisis to spread to other parts of the globe, particularly Europe. A system of oversight, research, and treatment is needed to address mortality rates of historic proportions and prevent further harm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Meyer
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 5950 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
- University Psychiatric Clinics Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Jean N Westenberg
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 5950 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Kerry L Jang
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 5950 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Fiona Choi
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 5950 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Stefanie Schreiter
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nickie Mathew
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 5950 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Conor King
- Victoria Police Department, Victoria, Canada
| | - Undine E Lang
- University Psychiatric Clinics Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marc Vogel
- University Psychiatric Clinics Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - R Michael Krausz
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 5950 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
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28
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Di Trana A, La Maida N, Froldi R, Scendoni R, Busardò FP, Pichini S. The new synthetic benzimidazole opioid etonitazepipne: an emerging fatal harm and a challenge for laboratory medicine. Clin Chem Lab Med 2023; 61:e200-e202. [PMID: 37067537 DOI: 10.1515/cclm-2023-0186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Annagiulia Di Trana
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Rome, Italy
| | - Nunzia La Maida
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Rome, Italy
| | - Rino Froldi
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Law, University of Macerata, Macerata, Italy
| | - Roberto Scendoni
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Department of Law, University of Macerata, Macerata, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Science and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Ancona, Italy
| | - Simona Pichini
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Rome, Italy
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Vandeputte MM, Tsai MHM, Chen L, Glatfelter GC, Walther D, Stove CP, Shi L, Baumann MH. Comparative neuropharmacology of structurally distinct non-fentanyl opioids that are appearing on recreational drug markets worldwide. Drug Alcohol Depend 2023; 249:109939. [PMID: 37276825 PMCID: PMC10330921 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2023.109939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The emergence of novel synthetic opioids (NSOs) is contributing to the opioid overdose crisis. While fentanyl analogs have historically dominated the NSO market, a shift towards non-fentanyl compounds is now occurring. METHODS Here, we examined the neuropharmacology of structurally distinct non-fentanyl NSOs, including U-47700, isotonitazene, brorphine, and N-desethyl isotonitazene, as compared to morphine and fentanyl. Compounds were tested in vitro using opioid receptor binding assays in rat brain tissue and by monitoring forskolin-stimulated cAMP accumulation in cells expressing the human mu-opioid receptor (MOR). Compounds were administered subcutaneously to male Sprague-Dawley rats, and hot plate antinociception, catalepsy score, and body temperature changes were measured. RESULTS Receptor binding results revealed high MOR selectivity for all compounds, with MOR affinities comparable to those of morphine and fentanyl (i.e., nM). All drugs acted as full-efficacy MOR agonists in the cyclic AMP assay, but nitazene analogs had greater functional potencies (i.e., pM) compared to the other drugs (i.e., nM). When administered to rats, all compounds induced opioid-like antinociception, catalepsy, and body temperature changes, but nitazenes were the most potent. Similar to fentanyl, the nitazenes had faster onset and decline of in vivo effects when compared to morphine. In vivo potencies to induce antinociception and catalepsy (i.e., ED50s) correlated with in vitro functional potencies (i.e., EC50s) but not binding affinities (i.e., Kis) at MOR. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, our findings indicate that non-fentanyl NSOs pose grave danger to those individuals who use opioids. Continued vigilance is needed to identify and characterize synthetic opioids as they emerge in clandestine drug markets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marthe M Vandeputte
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Meng-Hua M Tsai
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Li Chen
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Grant C Glatfelter
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Donna Walther
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lei Shi
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Zawilska JB, Adamowicz P, Kurpeta M, Wojcieszak J. Non-fentanyl new synthetic opioids - An update. Forensic Sci Int 2023; 349:111775. [PMID: 37423031 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2023.111775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND New synthetic opioids (NSO) constitute one of the fastest-growing group of New Psychoactive Substances, which emerged on the illicit drug marker in the second half of 2000's. The most popular and the largest NSO subgroup are high potency fentanyl and its analogs. Subsequent to core-structure scheduling of fentanyl-related substances many opioids with different chemical structures are now emerging on the illicit drug market, rendering the landscape highly complex and dynamic. METHODS PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar were searched for appropriate articles up to December 2022. Moreover, a search for reports was conducted on Institutional websites to identify documentation published by World Health Organization, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, and European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Only articles or reports written in English were selected. RESULTS Non-fentanyl derived synthetic opioids, i.e., 2-benzylbenzimidazoles (nitazenes), brorphine, U-compounds, AH-7921, MT-45 and related compounds are characterized, describing them in terms of available forms, pharmacology, metabolism as well as their toxic effects. Sample procedures and analytical techniques available for detection and quantification of these compounds in biological matrices are also presented. Finally, as overdoses involving highly potent NSO may be difficult to reverse, the effectiveness of naloxone as a rescue agent in NSO overdose is discussed. CONCLUSIONS Current review presents key information on non-fentanyl derived NSO. Access to upto-date data on substances of abuse is of great importance for clinicians, public health authorities and professionals performing analyses of biological samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolanta B Zawilska
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, Muszynskiego 1, 90-151 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Piotr Adamowicz
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Forensic Research, Westerplatte 9, 31-033 Krakow, Poland
| | - Marta Kurpeta
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, Muszynskiego 1, 90-151 Lodz, Poland
| | - Jakub Wojcieszak
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, Muszynskiego 1, 90-151 Lodz, Poland
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31
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Vandeputte MM, Walton SE, Shuda SA, Papsun DM, Krotulski AJ, Stove CP. Detection, chemical analysis, and pharmacological characterization of dipyanone and other new synthetic opioids related to prescription drugs. Anal Bioanal Chem 2023:10.1007/s00216-023-04722-7. [PMID: 37173408 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-04722-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of structurally diverse new synthetic opioids (NSOs) has caused the opioid crisis to spiral to new depths. Little information is available about the pharmacology of most novel opioids when they first emerge. Here, using a β-arrestin 2 recruitment assay, we investigated the in vitro μ-opioid receptor (MOR) activation potential of dipyanone, desmethylmoramide, and acetoxymethylketobemidone (O-AMKD) - recent NSOs that are structurally related to the prescription opioids methadone and ketobemidone. Our findings indicate that dipyanone (EC50=39.9 nM; Emax=155% vs. hydromorphone) is about equally active as methadone (EC50=50.3 nM; Emax=152%), whereas desmethylmoramide (EC50=1335 nM; Emax=126%) is considerably less active. A close structural analogue of ketobemidone (EC50=134 nM; Emax=156%) and methylketobemidone (EC50=335 nM; Emax=117%), O-AMKD showed a lower potency (EC50=1262 nM) and efficacy (Emax=109%). Evaluation of the opioid substitution product buprenorphine and its metabolite norbuprenorphine confirmed the increased in vitro efficacy of the latter. In addition to in vitro characterization, this report details the first identification and full chemical analysis of dipyanone in a seized powder, as well as a postmortem toxicology case from the USA involving the drug. Dipyanone was quantified in blood (370 ng/mL), in which it was detected alongside other NSOs (e.g., 2-methyl AP-237) and novel benzodiazepines (e.g., flualprazolam). While dipyanone is currently not commonly encountered in forensic samples worldwide, its emergence is worrisome and representative of the dynamic NSO market. Graphical Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marthe M Vandeputte
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sara E Walton
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education (CFSRE), Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Avenue, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | - Sarah A Shuda
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education (CFSRE), Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Avenue, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | | | - Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education (CFSRE), Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Avenue, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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Xie B, Le Rouzic VP, Goldberg A, Tsai MHM, Chen L, Zhang T, Sinha A, Pan YX, Baumann MH, Shi L. Binding preference at the μ-opioid receptor underlies distinct pharmacology of cyclopropyl versus valeryl analogs of fentanyl. Neuropharmacology 2023; 227:109442. [PMID: 36731721 PMCID: PMC9974845 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Illicitly manufactured fentanyl is driving the current opioid crisis, and various fentanyl analogs are appearing in recreational drug markets worldwide. To assess the potential health risks posed by fentanyl analogs, it is necessary to understand structure-activity relationships for these compounds. Here we compared the pharmacology of two structurally related fentanyl analogs implicated in opioid overdose: cyclopropylfentanyl and valerylfentanyl. Cyclopropylfentanyl has a three-carbon ring attached to the carbonyl group on the fentanyl scaffold, whereas valerylfentanyl has a four-carbon chain at the same position. In vitro assays examining μ-opioid receptor (MOR) coupling to G proteins in CHO cells showed that cyclopropylfentanyl is a full agonist (EC50 = 8.6 nM, %Emax = 113%), with potency and efficacy similar to fentanyl (EC50 = 10.3 nM, %Emax = 113%). By contrast, valerylfentanyl is a partial agonist at MOR (EC50 = 179.8 nM, %Emax = 60%). Similar results were found in assays assessing MOR-mediated β-arrestin recruitment in HEK cells. In vivo studies in male CD-1 mice demonstrated that both fentanyl analogs induce naloxone-reversible antinociception and respiratory suppression, but cyclopropylfentanyl is 100-times more potent as an antinociceptive agent (ED50 = 0.04 mg/kg, s. c.) than valerylfentanyl (ED50 = 4.0 mg/kg, s. c.). Molecular simulation results revealed that the alkyl chain of valerylfentanyl cannot be well accommodated by the active state of MOR and may transition the receptor toward an inactive state, converting the fentanyl scaffold to a partial agonist. Taken together, our results suggest that cyclopropylfentanyl presents much greater risk of adverse effects when compared to valerylfentanyl. Moreover, the summed findings may provide clues to the design of therapeutic opioids with reduced adverse side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Xie
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Valerie P Le Rouzic
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Alexander Goldberg
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Meng-Hua M Tsai
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Li Chen
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Tiffany Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Antara Sinha
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Ying-Xian Pan
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA; Department of Anesthesiology, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Lei Shi
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA.
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Deventer MH, Persson M, Laus A, Pottie E, Cannaert A, Tocco G, Gréen H, Stove CP. Off-target activity of NBOMes and NBOMe analogs at the µ opioid receptor. Arch Toxicol 2023; 97:1367-1384. [PMID: 36853332 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-023-03465-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) are introduced on the illicit drug market at a rapid pace. Their molecular targets are often inadequately elucidated, which contributes to the delayed characterization of their pharmacological effects. Inspired by earlier findings, this study set out to investigate the µ opioid receptor (MOR) activation potential of a large set of psychedelics, substances which typically activate the serotonin (5-HT2A) receptor as their target receptor. We observed that some substances carrying the N-benzyl phenethylamine (NBOMe) structure activated MOR, as confirmed by both the NanoBiT® βarr2 recruitment assay and the G protein-based AequoScreen® Ca2+ release assay. The use of two orthogonal systems proved beneficial as some aspecific, receptor independent effects were found for various analogs when using the Ca2+ release assay. The specific 'off-target' effects at MOR could be blocked by the opioid antagonist naloxone, suggesting that these NBOMes occupy the same common opioid binding pocket as conventional opioids. This was corroborated by molecular docking, which revealed the plausibility of multiple interactions of 25I-NBOMe with MOR, similar to those observed for opioids. Additionally, structure-activity relationship findings seen in vitro were rationalized in silico for two 25I-NBOMe isomers. Overall, as MOR activity of these psychedelics was only noticed at high concentrations, we consider it unlikely that for the tested compounds there will be a relevant opioid toxicity in vivo at physiologically relevant concentrations. However, small modifications to the original NBOMe structure may result in a panel of more efficacious and potent MOR agonists, potentially exhibiting a dual MOR/5-HT2A activation potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie H Deventer
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mattias Persson
- Department of Forensic Genetic and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Antonio Laus
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Eline Pottie
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Graziella Tocco
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Henrik Gréen
- Department of Forensic Genetic and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden.,Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000, Ghent, Belgium.
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New Psychoactive Substances Intoxications and Fatalities during the COVID-19 Epidemic. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:biology12020273. [PMID: 36829550 PMCID: PMC9953068 DOI: 10.3390/biology12020273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
In January 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued a Public Health Emergency of International Concern, declaring the COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic in March 2020. Stringent measures decreased consumption of some drugs, moving the illicit market to alternative substances, such as New Psychoactive Substances (NPS). A systematic literature search was performed, using scientific databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and institutional and government websites, to identify reported intoxications and fatalities from NPS during the COVID-19 pandemic. The search terms were: COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, coronavirus disease 2019, intox*, fatal*, new psychoactive substance, novel psychoactive substance, smart drugs, new psychoactive substance, novel synthetic opioid, synthetic opioid, synthetic cathinone, bath salts, legal highs, nitazene, bath salt, legal high, synthetic cannabinoid, phenethylamine, phencyclidine, piperazine, novel benzodiazepine, benzodiazepine analogue, designer benzodiazepines, tryptamine and psychostimulant. From January 2020 to March 2022, 215 NPS exposures were reported in Europe, UK, Japan and USA. Single NPS class intoxications accounted for 25, while mixed NPS class intoxications represented only 3 cases. A total of 130 NPS single class fatalities and 56 fatalities involving mixed NPS classes were published during the pandemic. Synthetic opioids were the NPS class most abused, followed by synthetic cathinones and synthetic cannabinoids. Notably, designer benzodiazepines were frequently found in combination with fentalogues. Considering the stress to communities and healthcare systems generated by the pandemic, NPS-related information may be underestimated. However, we could not define the exact impacts of COVID-19 on processing of toxicological data, autopsy and death investigations.
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Walton SE, Krotulski AJ, Glatfelter GC, Walther D, Logan BK, Baumann MH. Plasma pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic effects of the 2-benzylbenzimidazole synthetic opioid, isotonitazene, in male rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2023; 240:185-198. [PMID: 36526866 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-022-06292-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Isotonitazene is an illicit synthetic opioid associated with many intoxications and fatalities. Recent studies show that isotonitazene is a potent µ-opioid receptor (MOR) agonist in vitro, but little information is available about its in vivo effects. OBJECTIVES The aims of the present study were to investigate the pharmacokinetics of isotonitazene in rats, and relate pharmacokinetic parameters to pharmacodynamic effects. METHODS Isotonitazene and its metabolites were identified and quantified by liquid chromatography tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-QQQ-MS). Male Sprague-Dawley rats with jugular catheters and subcutaneous (s.c.) temperature transponders received isotonitazene (3, 10, 30 µg/kg, s.c.) or its vehicle. Blood samples were drawn at 15, 30, 60, 120, and 240 min post-injection, and plasma was assayed using LC-QQQ-MS. At each blood draw, body temperature, catalepsy scores, and hot plate latencies were recorded. RESULTS Maximum plasma concentrations of isotonitazene rose in parallel with increasing dose (range 0.2-9.8 ng/mL) and half-life ranged from 23.4 to 63.3 min. The metabolites 4'-hydroxy nitazene and N-desethyl isotonitazene were detected, and plasma concentrations were below the limit of quantitation (0.5 ng/mL) but above the limit of detection (0.1 ng/mL). Isotonitazene produced antinociception (ED50 = 4.22 µg/kg), catalepsy-like symptoms (ED50 = 8.68 µg/kg), and hypothermia (only at 30 µg/kg) that were significantly correlated with concentrations of isotonitazene. Radioligand binding in rat brain tissue revealed that isotonitazene displays nM affinity for MOR (Ki = 15.8 nM), while the N-desethyl metabolite shows even greater affinity (Ki = 2.2 nM). CONCLUSIONS In summary, isotonitazene is a potent MOR agonist whose pharmacodynamic effects are related to circulating concentrations of the parent drug. The high potency of isotonitazene portends substantial risk to users who are exposed to the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara E Walton
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Avenue, Willow Grove, PA, 19090, USA
- College of Life Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Locust Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19107, USA
| | - Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Avenue, Willow Grove, PA, 19090, USA.
- College of Life Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Locust Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19107, USA.
| | - Grant C Glatfelter
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute On Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Donna Walther
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute On Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Barry K Logan
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Avenue, Willow Grove, PA, 19090, USA
- College of Life Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Locust Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19107, USA
- NMS Labs, 200 Welsh Road, Horsham, PA, 19044, USA
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute On Drug Abuse (NIDA), National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
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Papsun DM, Krotulski AJ, Logan BK. Proliferation of Novel Synthetic Opioids in Postmortem Investigations After Core-Structure Scheduling for Fentanyl-Related Substances. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2022; 43:315-327. [PMID: 36103391 DOI: 10.1097/paf.0000000000000787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT New generations of novel synthetic opioids (NSOs) have emerged to fill a void in the illicit drug markets left by the decline in popularity of fentanyl analogs subsequent to core-structure scheduling of fentanyl-related substances in the United States and China. These new opioids include members of the 2-benzyl benzimidazole (eg, isotonitazene, metonitazene, N -pyrrolidino etonitazene, protonitazene, etodesnitazene), benzimidazolone (eg, brorphine), and cinnamylpiperazine (eg, AP-238, 2-methyl AP-237) subclasses. Novel synthetic opioids continue to be detected in opioid-related fatal overdoses, demonstrating the harms associated with exposure to these drugs. Between January 2020 and December 2021, 384 casework blood samples were reported by our laboratory to contain 1 or more of the prior listed 8 NSOs. Isotonitazene (n = 144), metonitazene (n = 122), and brorphine (n = 91) were the 3 most prevalent substances, with positivity for isotonitazene and brorphine peaking just before the announcement of emergency scheduling. These NSOs have been documented as significant drivers of drug mortality, and this case series described here highlights the challenges medical examiners and coroners face in staying current with emerging drugs. Challenges include regional differences, rapid turnover, short lifecycles, variable toxicology testing, and difficulty in assessing individual drug toxicity in polydrug cases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow, Grove, PA
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De Luca MA, Tocco G, Mostallino R, Laus A, Caria F, Musa A, Pintori N, Ucha M, Poza C, Ambrosio E, Di Chiara G, Castelli MP. Pharmacological characterization of novel synthetic opioids: Isotonitazene, metonitazene, and piperidylthiambutene as potent MU opioid receptor agonists. Neuropharmacology 2022; 221:109263. [PMID: 36154843 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recent trends of opioid abuse and related fatalities have highlighted the critical role of Novel Synthetic Opioids (NSOs). We studied the μ-opioid-like properties of isotonitazene (ITZ), metonitazene (MTZ), and piperidylthiambutene (PTB) using different approaches. In vitro studies showed that ITZ and MTZ displayed a higher potency in both rat membrane homogenates (EC50: 0.99 and 19.1 nM, respectively) and CHO-MOR (EC50: 0.71 and 10.0 nM, respectively) than [D-Ala2, NMe-Phe4, Gly-ol5]-enkephalin (DAMGO), with no difference in maximal efficacy (Emax) between DAMGO and NSOs. ITZ also has higher affinity (Ki: 0.06 and 0.05 nM) at the MOR than DAMGO in both systems, whilst MTZ has higher affinity in CHO-MOR (Ki = 0.23 nM) and similar affinity in rat cerebral cortex (Ki = 0.22 nM). PTB showed lower affinity and potency than DAMGO. In vivo, ITZ displayed higher analgesic potency than fentanyl and morphine (ED50: 0.00156, 0.00578, 2.35 mg/kg iv, respectively); ITZ (0.01 mg/kg iv) and MTZ (0.03 mg/kg iv) reduced behavioral activity and increased dialysate dopamine (DA) in the NAc shell (max. about 200% and 170% over basal value, respectively. Notably, ITZ elicited an increase in DA comparable to that of higher dose of morphine (1 mg/kg iv), but higher than the same dose of fentanyl (0.01 mg/kg iv). In silico, induced fit docking (IFD) and metadynamic simulations (MTD) showed that binding modes and structural changes at the receptor, ligand stability, and the overall energy score of NSOs were consistent with the results of the biological assays.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Graziella Tocco
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | | | - Antonio Laus
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - Francesca Caria
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - Aurora Musa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - Nicholas Pintori
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - Marcos Ucha
- Department of Psychobiology, National University for Distance Learning (UNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Celia Poza
- Department of Psychobiology, National University for Distance Learning (UNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Emilio Ambrosio
- Department of Psychobiology, National University for Distance Learning (UNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Gaetano Di Chiara
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy; CNR Institute of Neuroscience, Cagliari Section, University of Cagliari, Italy.
| | - M Paola Castelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy.
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Roberts A, Korona-Bailey J, Mukhopadhyay S. Notes from the Field: Nitazene-Related Deaths — Tennessee, 2019–2021. MMWR. MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT 2022; 71:1196-1197. [PMID: 36107790 PMCID: PMC9484803 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7137a5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Allison Roberts
- Office of Informatics and Analytics, Tennessee Department of Health
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Krausz RM, Westenberg JN, Meyer M, Choi F. The upcoming synthetic ultrapotent opioid wave as a foreseeable disaster. Lancet Psychiatry 2022; 9:699-700. [PMID: 35964584 PMCID: PMC9371586 DOI: 10.1016/s2215-0366(22)00241-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R Michael Krausz
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada.
| | - Jean N Westenberg
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada; Center for Addictive Disorders, University Psychiatric Clinics Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Maximilian Meyer
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada; Center for Addictive Disorders, University Psychiatric Clinics Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fiona Choi
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
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First identification, chemical analysis and pharmacological characterization of N-piperidinyl etonitazene (etonitazepipne), a recent addition to the 2-benzylbenzimidazole opioid subclass. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:1865-1880. [PMID: 35449307 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03294-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
N-Piperidinyl etonitazene ('etonitazepipne') represents a recent addition to the rapidly expanding class of 2-benzylbenzimidazole 'nitazene' opioids. Following its first identification in an online-sourced powder and in biological samples from a patient seeking help for detoxification, this report details its in-depth chemical analysis and pharmacological characterization. Analysis of the powder via different techniques (LC-HRMS, GC-MS, UHPLC-DAD, FT-IR) led to the unequivocal identification of N-piperidinyl etonitazene. Furthermore, we report the first activity-based detection and analytical identification of N-piperidinyl etonitazene in authentic samples. LC-HRMS analysis revealed concentrations of 1.21 ng/mL in serum and 0.51 ng/mL in urine, whereas molecular networking enabled the tentative identification of various (potentially active) urinary metabolites. In addition, we determined that the extent of opioid activity present in the patient's serum was equivalent to the in vitro opioid activity exerted by 2.5-10 ng/mL fentanyl or 10-25 ng/mL hydromorphone in serum. Radioligand binding assays in rat brain tissue revealed that the drug binds with high affinity (Ki = 14.3 nM) to the µ-opioid receptor (MOR). Using a MOR-β-arrestin2 activation assay, we found that N-piperidinyl etonitazene is highly potent (EC50 = 2.49 nM) and efficacious (Emax = 183% versus hydromorphone) in vitro. Pharmacodynamic evaluation in male Sprague Dawley rats showed that N-piperidinyl etonitazene induces opioid-like antinociceptive, cataleptic, and thermic effects, its potency in the hot plate assay (ED50 = 0.0205 mg/kg) being comparable to that of fentanyl (ED50 = 0.0209 mg/kg), and > 190 times higher than that of morphine (ED50 = 3.940 mg/kg). Taken together, our findings indicate that N-piperidinyl etonitazene is a potent opioid with the potential to cause harm in users.
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