The origin of conserved protein domains and amino acid repeats via adaptive competition for control over amino acid residues

Functional investigation of two 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) synthase-like genes in the moss Physcomitrella patens

Two ACC synthase-like (ACL) proteins in the moss Physcomitrella patens have no ACS activity, and PpACL1 functions as an L -cystine/ L -cysteine C-S lyase. The ethylene biosynthetic pathway has been well characterized in higher plants, and homologs of a key enzyme in this pathway, ACS, have been reported in several algae and mosses, including Physcomitrella patens. However, the function of the ACS homologs in P. patens has not been investigated. In this research, we cloned two putative ACS genes from the P. patens genome, namely PpACS-Like 1 and 2, and investigated whether their encoded proteins had in vitro and in vivo ACS activity. In vitro biochemical assays using purified PpACL1 and PpACL2 showed that neither protein had ACS activity. Subsequently, we generated transgenic Arabidopsis lines expressing 35S:PpACL1 and 35S:PpACL2, and found that the transgenic etiolated seedlings that overexpressed either of these proteins lacked the constitutive triple response phenotype and did not emit excess levels of ethylene, indicating that neither of the PpACS-Like proteins had in vivo ACS activity. Furthermore, we found that PpACL1 functions as a C-S lyase that uses L-cystine and L-cysteine as substrates, rather than as an aminotransferase. Together, these results indicated that PpACL1 and PpACL2 are not true ACS genes as those found in higher plants.

HoxA Genes and the Fin-to-Limb Transition in Vertebrates

HoxA genes encode for important DNA-binding transcription factors that act during limb development, regulating primarily gene expression and, consequently, morphogenesis and skeletal differentiation. Within these genes, HoxA11 and HoxA13 were proposed to have played an essential role in the enigmatic evolutionary transition from fish fins to tetrapod limbs. Indeed, comparative gene expression analyses led to the suggestion that changes in their regulation might have been essential for the diversification of vertebrates' appendages. In this review, we highlight three potential modifications in the regulation and function of these genes that may have boosted appendage evolution: (1) the expansion of polyalanine repeats in the HoxA11 and HoxA13 proteins; (2) the origin of +a novel long-non-coding RNA with a possible inhibitory function on HoxA11; and (3) the acquisition of cis-regulatory elements modulating 5' HoxA transcription. We discuss the relevance of these mechanisms for appendage diversification reviewing the current state of the art and performing additional comparative analyses to characterize, in a phylogenetic framework, HoxA11 and HoxA13 expression, alanine composition within the encoded proteins, long-non-coding RNAs and cis-regulatory elements.

Understanding and identifying amino acid repeats

Amino acid repeats (AARs) are abundant in protein sequences. They have particular roles in protein function and evolution. Simple repeat patterns generated by DNA slippage tend to introduce length variations and point mutations in repeat regions. Loss of normal and gain of abnormal function owing to their variable length are potential risks leading to diseases. Repeats with complex patterns mostly refer to the functional domain repeats, such as the well-known leucine-rich repeat and WD repeat, which are frequently involved in protein–protein interaction. They are mainly derived from internal gene duplication events and stabilized by ‘gate-keeper’ residues, which play crucial roles in preventing inter-domain aggregation. AARs are widely distributed in different proteomes across a variety of taxonomic ranges, and especially abundant in eukaryotic proteins. However, their specific evolutionary and functional scenarios are still poorly understood. Identifying AARs in protein sequences is the first step for the further investigation of their biological function and evolutionary mechanism. In principle, this is an NP-hard problem, as most of the repeat fragments are shaped by a series of sophisticated evolutionary events and become latent periodical patterns. It is not possible to define a uniform criterion for detecting and verifying various repeat patterns. Instead, different algorithms based on different strategies have been developed to cope with different repeat patterns. In this review, we attempt to describe the amino acid repeat-detection algorithms currently available and compare their strategies based on an in-depth analysis of the biological significance of protein repeats.

Dissecting the role of low-complexity regions in the evolution of vertebrate proteins

BACKGROUND

Low-complexity regions (LCRs) in proteins are tracts that are highly enriched in one or a few amino acids. Given their high abundance, and their capacity to expand in relatively short periods of time through replication slippage, they can greatly contribute to increase protein sequence space and generate novel protein functions. However, little is known about the global impact of LCRs on protein evolution.

RESULTS

We have traced back the evolutionary history of 2,802 LCRs from a large set of homologous protein families from H.sapiens, M.musculus, G.gallus, D.rerio and C.intestinalis. Transcriptional factors and other regulatory functions are overrepresented in proteins containing LCRs. We have found that the gain of novel LCRs is frequently associated with repeat expansion whereas the loss of LCRs is more often due to accumulation of amino acid substitutions as opposed to deletions. This dichotomy results in net protein sequence gain over time. We have detected a significant increase in the rate of accumulation of novel LCRs in the ancestral Amniota and mammalian branches, and a reduction in the chicken branch. Alanine and/or glycine-rich LCRs are overrepresented in recently emerged LCR sets from all branches, suggesting that their expansion is better tolerated than for other LCR types. LCRs enriched in positively charged amino acids show the contrary pattern, indicating an important effect of purifying selection in their maintenance.

CONCLUSION

We have performed the first large-scale study on the evolutionary dynamics of LCRs in protein families. The study has shown that the composition of an LCR is an important determinant of its evolutionary pattern.

Quantifying protein modularity and evolvability: a comparison of different techniques

Modularity increases evolvability by reducing constraints on adaptation and by allowing preexisting parts to function in new contexts for novel uses. Protein evolution provides an excellent context to study the causes and consequences of biological modularity. In order to address such questions, however, an index for protein modularity is necessary. This paper proposes a simple index for protein modularity-"module density"-which is the number of evolutionarily independent modules that compose a protein divided by the number of amino acids in the protein. The decomposition of proteins into constituent modules can be accomplished by either of two classes of methods. The first class of methods relies on "suppositional" criteria to assign amino acids to modules, whereas the second class of methods relies on "coevolutionary" criteria for this task. One simple and practical method from the first class consists of approximating the number of modules in a protein as the number of regular secondary structure elements (i.e., helices and sheets). Methods based on coevolutionary criteria require more elaborate data, but they have the advantage of being able to specify modules without prior assumptions about why they exist. Given the increasing availability of datasets sampling protein mutational spectra (e.g., from comparative genomics, experimental evolution, and computational prediction), methods based on coevolutionary criteria will likely become more promising in the near future. The ability to meaningfully quantify protein modularity via simple indices has the potential to aid future efforts to understand protein evolutionary rate determinants, improve molecular evolution models and engineer novel proteins.

Coordinated genome-wide modifications within proximal promoter cis-regulatory elements during vertebrate evolution

There often exists a "one-to-many" relationship between a transcription factor and a multitude of binding sites throughout the genome. It is commonly assumed that transcription factor binding motifs remain largely static over the course of evolution because changes in binding specificity can alter the interactions with potentially hundreds of sites across the genome. Focusing on regulatory motifs overrepresented at specific locations within or near the promoter, we find that a surprisingly large number of cis-regulatory elements have been subject to coordinated genome-wide modifications during vertebrate evolution, such that the motif frequency changes on a single branch of vertebrate phylogeny. This was found to be the case even between closely related mammal species, with nearly a third of all location-specific consensus motifs exhibiting significant modifications within the human or mouse lineage since their divergence. Many of these modifications are likely to be compensatory changes throughout the genome following changes in protein factor binding affinities, whereas others may be due to changes in mutation rates or effective population size. The likelihood that this happened many times during vertebrate evolution highlights the need to examine additional taxa and to understand the evolutionary and molecular mechanisms underlying the evolution of protein-DNA interactions.