Arsenite tolerance is related to proportional thiolic metabolite synthesis in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Soil inorganic amendments produce safe rice by reducing the transfer of Cd and increasing key amino acids in brown rice

The digestibility of cadmium (Cd) in brown rice is directly related to amino acid metabolism in rice and human health. In our field study, three kinds of alkaline calcium-rich soil inorganic amendments (SIAs) at three dosages were applied to produce safe rice and improve the quality of rice in Cd-contaminated paddy. With the increased application of SIA, Cd content in iron plaque on rice root significantly increased, the transfer of Cd from rice root to grain significantly decreased, and then Cd content in brown rice decreased synchronously. The vitro digestibility of Cd in brown rice was estimated by a physiologically based extraction test. Results showed that more than 70% of Cd in brown rice could be digested by simulated gastrointestinal juice. Based on the total and digestible Cd contents in brown rice to evaluate the health risk, the application of 2.25 ton SIA/ha could produce safe rice in acidic slightly Cd-contaminated paddy soils. The amino acids (AAs) in brown rice were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. The contents of 5 key AAs (KAAs) that actively respond to environmental changes increased significantly with the increased application of SIA. The structural equation model indicated that KAAs could be affected by the Cd translocation capacity from rice root to grain, and consequently altered the ratio of indigestible Cd in brown rice. The formation of indigestible KAAs-Cd complexes by combining KAAs (phenylalanine, leucine, histidine, glutamine, and asparagine) with Cd in brown rice could be considered a potential mechanism for reducing the digestibility of Cd.

Reduction of lead toxicity effects and enhancing the glutathione reservoir in green beans through spraying sulfur and serine and glutamine amino acids

Acid rain is one of the influential environmental factors in transport of heavy metals, including lead from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth and growing plants. Such situation can not only damage the growing plants but can also toxify the food chain, and endanger human life. In order to reduce stress damage due to lead, on green bean plant, the effect of spraying the plants by sulfur, also amino acids including serine and glutamine, was evaluated. A factorial experiment based on randomized complete block design with three replications was carried out using the green bean Sunray cultivar in 2020. Treatments include foliar application of lead at two levels (0.0 and 1 mmol) as lead acetate, foliar application of liquid sulfur at two levels (0.0 and 2 per thousand), and foliar application of amino acids at four levels (0.0, serine at 200 mg/L, glutamine at 200 mg/L, and co-application of serine and glutamine at the same concentrations) at pre-flowering stage. The results showed that leaf foliar uptake of most of the employed treatments resulted in reduction of leaf area index, leaf, stem and pods dry weight, stem diameter and height, pod yield, photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids, and relative leaf water content. However, grain protein content, hydrogen peroxide, and glutathione antioxidant activity significantly increased. Spraying of sulfur solution and serine and glutamine were effective in reducing the negative effects of lead stress, as it reduced the amount of hydrogen peroxide and grain protein and increased the reservoir of glutathione. These treatments also, compared to the pure lead treatment, significantly reduced lead accumulation in the pod, as the edible organ of green beans. This study results showed that foliar application of sulfur along with amino acids serine and glutamine reduced the lead toxicity effects through improving the physiological functions, and thus can increase the final yield and consequently human access to healthier food (Fig. 1). Fig. 1 Graphical abstract.

Arsenic as hazardous pollutant: Perspectives on engineering remediation tools

Arsenic (As) is highly toxic metal (loid) that impairs plant growth and proves fatal towards human population. It disrupts physiological, biochemical and molecular attributes of plants associated with water/nutrient uptake, redox homeostasis, photosynthetic machineries, cell/membrane damage, and ATP synthesis. Numerous transcription factors are responsive towards As through regulating stress signaling, toxicity and resistance. Additionally, characterization of specific genes encoding uptake, translocation, detoxification and sequestration has also explained their underlying mechanisms. Arsenic within soil enters the food chain and cause As-poisoning. Plethora of conventional methods has been used since decades to plummet As-toxicity, but the success rate is quite low due to environmental hazards. Henceforth, exploration of effective and eco-friendly methods is aimed for As-remediation. With the technological advancements, we have enumerated novel strategies to address this concern for practicing such techniques on global scale. Novel strategies such as bioremediation, phytoremediation, mycorrhizae-mediated remediation, biochar, algal-remediation etc. possess extraordinary results. Moreover, nitric oxide (NO), a signaling molecule has also been explored in relieving As-stress through reducing oxidative damages and triggering antioxidative responses. Other strategies such as role of plant hormones (salicylic acid, indole-3-acetic acid, jasmonic acid) and micro-nutrients such as selenium have also been elucidated in As-remediation from soil. This has been observed through stimulated antioxidant activities, gene expression of transporters, defense genes, cell-wall modifications along with the synthesis of chelating agents such as phytochelatins and metallothioneins. This review encompasses the updated information about As toxicity and its remediation through novel techniques that serve to be the hallmarks for stress revival. We have summarised the genetic engineering protocols, biotechnological as well as nanotechnological applications in plants to combat As-toxicity.

Recent advances in arsenic mitigation in rice through biotechnological approaches

Arsenic (As) is a major threat to the environment and human health due to its toxicity and carcinogenicity. Occurrence of alarming concentrations of As in water and soil leads to its bioaccumulation in crops which is a major health concern globally. Rice (Oryza sativa) is a staple food for a large population staying in As contaminated areas so, it is of utmost importance to reduce As levels in rice, especially grains. Amongst several strategies in practice, biotechnology may provide an effective option to reduce As accumulation in rice grains. Genetic engineering can be a viable approach to exploit potential genes playing roles in As metabolism pathway in plants. Besides, developing low As accumulating rice varieties through breeding is also an important area. Identifying genotypic variation in rice is a crucial step toward the development of a safe rice cultivar for growing in As-affected areas. Significant genotypic variation has been found in rice varieties for As accumulation in grains and that is attributable to differential expression of transporters, radial oxygen loss, and other regulators of As stress. This review provides recent updates on the research advances leading to transgenic and breeding approaches adopted to reduce As levels in rice, especially grains.

Antioxidants as modulators of arsenic-induced oxidative stress tolerance in plants: An overview

Arsenic (As) is a highly toxic contaminant in the environment. Although both inorganic and organic types of arsenic exist in the environment, the most common inorganic forms of As that adversely affect plants are arsenite (As III) and arsenate (As V). Despite no evidence for As being essential for plant growth, exposure of roots to this element can cause its uptake primarily via transporters responsible for the transport of essential mineral nutrients. Arsenic exposure even at low concentrations disturbs the plant normal functioning via excessive generation of reactive oxygen species, a condition known as oxidative stress leading to an imbalance in the redox system of the plant. This is associated with considerable damage to the cell components thereby impairing normal cellular functions and activation of several cell survival and cell death pathways. To counteract this oxidative disorder, plants possess natural defense mechanisms such as chemical species and enzymatic antioxidants. This review considers how different types of antioxidants participate in the oxidative defense mechanism to alleviate As stress in plants. Since the underlying phenomena of oxidative stress tolerance are not yet fully elucidated, the potential for "Omics" technologies to uncover molecular mechanisms are discussed. Various strategies to improve As-induced oxidative tolerance in plants such as exogenous supplementation of effective growth regulators, protectant chemicals, transgenic approaches, and genome editing are also discussed thoroughly in this review.

Nitric oxide-mediated alleviation of arsenic stress involving metalloid detoxification and physiological responses in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Rice is a staple crop, and food chain contamination of arsenic in rice grain possesses a serious health risk to billions of population. Arsenic stress negatively affects the rice growth, yield and quality of the grains. Nitric oxide (NO) is a major signaling molecule that may trigger various cellular responses in plants. The protective role of NO during arsenite (AsIII) stress and its relationship with plant physiological and metabolic responses is not explored in detail. Exogenous NO, supplemented through the roots in the form of sodium nitroprusside, has been shown to provide protection vis-à-vis AsIII toxicity. The NO-mediated variation in physiological traits such as stomatal density, size, chlorophyll content and photosynthetic rate maintained the growth of the rice plant during AsIII stress. Besides, NO exposure also enhanced the lignin content in the root, decreased total arsenic content and maintained the activities of antioxidant isoenzymes to reduce the ROS level essential for protecting from AsIII mediated oxidative damage in rice plants. Further, NO supplementation enhanced the GSH/GSSG ratio and PC/As molar ratio by modulating PC content to reduce arsenic toxicity. Further, NO-mediated modulation of the level of GA, IAA, SA, JA, amino acids and phenolic metabolites during AsIII stress appears to play a central role to cope up with AsIII toxicity. The study highlighted the role of NO in AsIII stress tolerance involving modulation of metalloid detoxification and physiological pathways in rice plants.

Arsenate-reducing bacteria affect As accumulation and tolerance in Salix atrocinerea

Arsenic (As)-reducing bacteria are able to influence As-speciation and, in this way, change As bio-availability. In consequence, this has an impact on As uptake by plants growing on polluted soil and on the effectiveness of the phytoremediation process. To be able to efficiently utilize these bacteria for As-phytoremediation in the field, a better understanding of the plant-bacterial interactions involved in As-tolerance or toxicity is needed. In this work, seedlings of a clone of Salix atrocinerea derived from a specimen naturally growing on an As-polluted brownfield were grown under gnotobiotic conditions exposed to As, and in the presence or absence of two of its field-associated and in vitro characterized plant growth-promoting (PGP) bacteria. The inoculation with Pantoea sp., induced a moderate reduction of AsV to AsIII in the exposure medium that, together with a coordinated plant response of As uptake, chelation and sequestration, increased As accumulation in roots; which is reflected into a higher phytostabilization. However, inoculation with Rhodococcus erythropolis due to a higher disproportionate reduction of AsV to AsIII in the medium caused less As accumulation in roots that non-bioaugmented plants and despite the lower As content, the concentrations of AsIII present in the medium and the damage suffered in roots and leaves, indicated that As tolerance mechanisms (such as prevention of AsIII uptake and efflux) did not occur in time to avoid physical disturbance and plants growth reduction. Interestingly, by two different metabolic pathways -coordinated by different key transporters mediating As uptake, tolerance, distribution and vacuolar accumulation at the roots- both bacteria limited As accumulation in Salix shoots. Our results provide for the first time a detailed insight in the plant-bacterial responses and physiological changes contributing to As tolerance in S. atrocinerea, that will facilitate the design of effective strategies for exploitation of plant-associated microorganisms for phytoremediation.

Protective role of nitric oxide on nitrogen-thiol metabolism and amino acids profiling during arsenic exposure in Oryza sativa L

Nitric oxide (NO) being a signaling molecule inside the plant cells, play significant role in signaling cascades and protection against environmental stresses. However, the protective role of NO in alleviating As toxicity in rice plants is currently not available. In the present study, the level of NO, nitrogen (N), inorganic N (nitrate, ammonium), thiols {TT (Total thiols), NPT (Nonprotein thiol)} and AAs contents along with N assimilating enzymes (NR, GDH, GOGAT) were analyzed after exposure of As^III/NO treatment alone, and in combination. NO supplementation enhanced the content of N, inorganic N & thiol contents, NR, GOGAT activities, when compared with As^III exposure alone. In As^III exposed rice seedlings, content of AAs (except His, Arg, Met) reduced over the control, while supplementation of SNP improved AAs contents, compared to As^III treatment alone. In conclusion, rice seedlings supplemented with NO tolerate the As^III toxicity by reducing the N related parameters, thiol contents, altering the AA profile and enhanced the nutritional quality by increasing EAAs (essential amino acids) and NEAAs (non-essential amino acids).

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Metabolism and Nitric Oxide (NO) Content in Roots and Shoots of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Plants under Arsenic-Induced Stress

Arsenic (As) is a highly toxic metalloid for all forms of life including plants. Rice is the main food source for different countries worldwide, although it can take up high amounts of As in comparison with other crops, showing toxic profiles such as decreases in plant growth and yield. The induction of oxidative stress is the main process underlying arsenic toxicity in plants, including rice, due to an alteration of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism. The aim of this work was to gain better knowledge on how the ROS metabolism and its interaction with nitric oxide (NO) operate under As stress conditions in rice plants. Thus, physiological and ROS-related biochemical parameters in roots and shoots from rice (Oryza sativa L.) were studied under 50 μM arsenate (AsV) stress, and the involvement of the main antioxidative systems and NO in the response of plants to those conditions was investigated. A decrease of 51% in root length and 27% in plant biomass was observed with 50 μM AsV treatment, as compared to control plants. The results of the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) isozymes, catalase, peroxidase (POD: total and isoenzymatic), and the enzymes of the ascorbate–glutathione cycle, besides the ascorbate and glutathione contents, showed that As accumulation provoked an overall significant increase of most of them, but with different profiles depending on the plant organ, either root or shoot. Among the seven identified POD isozymes, the induction of the POD-3 in shoots under As stress could help to maintain the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) redox homeostasis and compensate the loss of the ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activity in both roots and shoots. Lipid peroxidation was slightly increased in roots and shoots from As-treated plants. The H2O2 and NO contents were enhanced in roots and shoots against arsenic stress. In spite of the increase of most antioxidative systems, a mild oxidative stress situation appears to be consolidated overall, since the growth parameters and those from the oxidative damage could not be totally counteracted. In these conditions, the higher levels of H2O2 and NO suggest that signaling events are simultaneously occurring in the whole plant.

Integrative response of arsenic uptake, speciation and detoxification by Salix atrocinerea

Despite arsenic (As) being very toxic with deleterious effects on metabolism, it can be tolerated and accumulated by some plants. General genetic mechanisms responsible for As tolerance in plants, including Salix species, have been described in transcriptomic analysis, but further experimental verification of the significance of particular transcripts is needed. In this study, a Salix atrocinerea clone, able to thrive in an As-contaminated brownfield, was grown hydroponically in controlled conditions under an As concentration similar to the bioavailable fraction of the contaminated area (18 mg kg^-1) for 30 days. At different time points, i.e. short-term and long-term exposure, biometric data, As accumulation, phytochelatin synthesis, non-protein thiol production and expression of target genes related to these processes were studied. Results showed that S. atrocinerea presents a great tolerance to As and accumulates up to 2400 mg As kg^-1 dry weight in roots and 25 mg As kg^-1 dry weight in leaves. Roots reduce As V to As III rapidly, with As III being the predominant form of As accumulated in root tissues, whereas in the leaves it is As V. After 1 d of As exposure, roots and leaves show de novo synthesis and an increase in non-protein thiols as compared to the control. Integrating these data on As accumulation in the plant and its speciation, non-protein thiol production and the kinetic gene expression of related target genes, a fundamental role is highlighted for these processes in As accumulation and tolerance in S. atrocinerea. As such, this study offers new insights in the plant tolerance mechanisms to As, which provides important knowledge for future application of high-biomass willow plants in phytoremediation of As-polluted soils.

Expressing Arsenite Antiporter PvACR3;1 in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Decreases Inorganic Arsenic Content in Rice Grains

Rice (Oryza sativa) is a major food crop in the world, feeding half of the world's population. However, rice is efficient in taking up toxic metalloid arsenic (As), adversely impacting human health. Among different As species, inorganic As is more toxic than organic As. Thus, it is important to decrease inorganic As in rice to reduce human exposure from the food chain. The arsenite (AsIII) antiporter gene PvACR3;1 from As-hyperaccumulator Pteris vittata decreases shoot As accumulation when heterologously expressed in plants. In this study, three homozygous transgenic lines (L2, L4, and L7) of T3 generation were obtained after transforming PvACR3;1 into rice. At 5 μM of AsIII, PvACR3;1 transgenic rice accumulated 127%-205% higher As in the roots, with lower As translocation than wild type (WT) plants. In addition, at 20 μM of AsV, the transgenic rice showed similar results, indicating that expressing PvACR3;1 increased As retention in the roots from both AsIII and AsV. Furthermore, PvACR3;1 transgenic rice plants were grown in As-contaminated soils under flooded conditions. PvACR3;1 decreased As accumulations in transgenic rice shoots by 72%-83% without impacting nutrient minerals (Mn, Zn, and Cu). In addition, not only total As in unhusked rice grain of PvACR3;1 transgenic lines were decreased by 28%-39%, but also inorganic As was 26%-46% lower. Taken together, the results showed that expressing PvACR3;1 effectively decreased both total As and inorganic As in rice grain, which is of significance to breed low-As rice for food safety and human health.

Reduction of arsenic toxicity in two rice cultivar seedlings by different nanoparticles

In this study, we investigated arsenic uptake and enzymatic activities in rice seedlings after the addition of nanoparticles. Hydroponic experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of different nanomaterials (high-quality graphene oxide, multilayer graphene oxide, 20 nm hydroxyapatite (HA₂₀), 40 nm hydroxyapatite (HA₄₀), nano-Fe₃O₄ (nFe₃O₄) and nano-zerovalent iron [nFe]) on the biomass, arsenic uptake, and enzyme activities in seedlings of the rice cultivars T705 and X24. Compared with the control, the addition of different nanomaterials increased seedling growth, with X24 rice growing better than T705 rice. Nanomaterials effectively reduced arsenic uptake in T705 rice seedlings under low and high arsenic concentrations; however, they were only effective at lower arsenic concentrations in X24 seedlings. nFe₃O₄ and nFe performed better than other nanomaterials in preventing arsenic from being transported to the aboveground parts of the rice seedlings. Different nanomaterials obviously influenced enzyme activities in the T705 seedlings at low arsenic concentrations (≤ 0.8 mg L^-1). High-quality and multilayer graphene oxide decreased enzyme activities in the aboveground parts of the T705 seedlings, whereas, HA₂₀ and HA₄₀ increased the enzyme activities. nFe₃O₄ and nFe also reduced the effect of antioxidants in the aboveground parts of the T705 seedlings. Nanomaterials effectively reduced the arsenic uptake of T705 and X24 rice seedlings at low arsenic concentrations.

Effects of cadmium stress on growth and amino acid metabolism in two Compositae plants

Cadmium, a high toxic heavy metal, is one of the most serious contaminants in soil and a potential threat to plant growth and human health. Amino acid metabolism has the central role in heavy metal stress resistance of plants. In this paper, a pot experiment was carried out to study the effects of different concentrations of cadmium (0, 3, 6, 12, 30 mg kg^-1) on the growth, Cd accumulation and amino acid metabolism in two Compositae plants (Ageratum conyzoides L. and Crassocephalum crepidioides). The results showed that under cadmium stress, C. crepidioides accumulated more Cd in its shoot and was tolerant to Cd, whereas its low Cd-accumulating relative, A. conyzoides, suffered reduced growth. The Cd content in the aerial part of C. crepidioides exceeded the threshold of Cd-hyperaccumulator. Furthermore, the bioaccumulation factor (BCF) and biological transfer factor (BTF) values for Cd in C. crepidioides were > 1. Thus, C. crepidioides can be regarded as Cd-hyperaccumulator. The comparison between both studied plants indicated that Cd stress resulted in a differential but coordinated response of amino acid levels, which are playing a significant role in plant adaptation to Cd stress. Glu, Gln, Asp, Asn, Gaba, Val and Ala dominated the major amino acids. Higher Cd tolerance and Cd accumulation in C. crepidioides was associated with greater accumulation of free amino acids, especially for Gln and Asn, in C. crepidioides than in A. conyzoides.

Application of glycine reduces arsenic accumulation and toxicity in Oryza sativa L. by reducing the expression of silicon transporter genes

The present study was intended to investigate the role of amino acid glycine in detoxification of As in Oryza sativa L. The growth parameters such as, shoot length and fresh weight were decreased during As(III) and As(V) toxicity. However, the application of glycine recovered the growth parameters against As stress. The application of glycine reduced the As accumulation in all the treatments, and it was more effective against As(III) treatment and reduced the accumulation by 68% in root and 71% in shoot. Similarly, the translocation of As from root to shoot, was higher against As(III) and As(V) treatments, whereas, reduced upon glycine application. The translocation of Fe and Na was also affected by As, which was lower under As(III) and As(V) treatments. However, the application of glycine significantly enhanced the translocation of Fe and Na in the shoot. Besides, the expression of lower silicon transporters i.e. Lsi-1 and Lsi-2 was observed to be significantly suppressed in the root with the application of glycine against As treatment. Similarly, the expression of three GRX and two GST gene isoforms were found to be significantly increased with glycine application. Simultaneously, the activities of antioxidant enzymes i.e. l-arginine dependent NOS, SOD, NTR and GRX were found to be significantly enhanced in the presence of glycine. Increased activities of antioxidant enzymes coincided with the decreased level of TBARS and H₂O₂ in rice seedlings. Overall, the results suggested that the application of glycine reduces As accumulation through suppressing the gene expression of lower silicon transporters and ameliorates As toxicity by enhancing antioxidants defense mechanism in rice seedlings.

The Journey of Arsenic from Soil to Grain in Rice

Arsenic (As) is a non-essential toxic metalloid whose elevated concentration in rice grains is a serious issue both for rice yield and quality, and for human health. The rice-As interactions, hence, have been studied extensively in past few decades. A deep understanding of factors influencing As uptake and transport from soil to grains can be helpful to tackle this issue so as to minimize grain As levels. As uptake at the root surface by rice plants depends on factors like iron plaque and radial oxygen loss. There is involvement of a number of transporters viz., phosphate transporters and aquaglyceroporins in the uptake and transport of different As species and in the movement to subcellular compartments. These processes are also affected by sulfur availability and consequently on the level of thiol (-SH)-containing As binding peptides viz., glutathione (GSH) and phytochelatins (PCs). Further, the role of phloem in As movement to the grains is also suggested. This review presents a detailed map of journey of As from soil to the grains. The implications for the utilization of available knowledge in minimizing As in rice grains are presented.

Nitric oxide mediated transcriptional modulation enhances plant adaptive responses to arsenic stress

Arsenic (As) contamination in rice leads to yield decline and causes carcinogenic risk to human health. Although the role of nitric oxide (NO) in reducing As toxicity is known, NO-mediated genetic modulation in the plant during arsenic toxicity has not yet been established. We analyzed the key components of NO metabolism and the correlations between NO interaction and arsenic stress using rice as a relevant model plant. Illumina sequencing was used to investigate the NO-mediated genome-wide temporal transcriptomic modulation in rice root upon AsIII exposure during 12 days (d) of the growth period. Sodium nitroprusside (SNP) was used as NO donor. SNP supplementation resulted in marked decrease in ROS, cell death and As accumulation during AsIII stress. NO was found to modulate metal transporters particularly NIP, NRAMP, ABC and iron transporters, stress related genes such as CytP450, GSTs, GRXs, TFs, amino acid, hormone(s), signaling and secondary metabolism genes involved in As detoxification. We detected NO-mediated change in jasmonic acid (JA) content during AsIII stress. The study infers that NO reduces AsIII toxicity through modulating regulatory networks involved in As detoxification and JA biosynthesis.

Arsenic-induced stress activates sulfur metabolism in different organs of garlic (Allium sativum L.) plants accompanied by a general decline of the NADPH-generating systems in roots

Arsenic (As) contamination is a major environmental problem which affects most living organisms from plants to animals. This metalloid poses a health risk for humans through its accumulation in crops and water. Using garlic (Allium sativum L.) plants as model crop exposed to 200μM arsenate, a comparative study among their main organs (roots and shoots) was made. The analysis of arsenic, glutathione (GSH), phytochelatins (PCs) and lipid peroxidation contents with the activities of antioxidant enzymes (catalase, superoxide dismutase, ascorbate-glutathione cycle), and the main components of the NADPH-generating system, including glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGDH), NADP-malic enzyme (NADP-ME) and NADP-isocitrate dehydrogenase (NADP-ICDH) was carried out. Data showed a correlation among arsenic accumulation in the different organs, PCs content and the antioxidative response, with a general decline of the NADPH-generating systems in roots. Overall, our results demonstrate that there are clear connections between arsenic uptake, increase of their As-chelating capacity in roots and a decline of antioxidative enzyme activities (catalase and the ascorbate peroxidase) whose alteration provoked As-induced oxidative stress. Thus, the data suggest that roots act as barrier of arsenic mediated by a prominent sulfur metabolism which is characterized by the biosynthesis of high amount of PCs.

Molecular insight of arsenic-induced carcinogenesis and its prevention

Population of India and Bangladesh and many other parts of the world are badly exposed to arsenic through drinking water. Due to non-availability of safe drinking water, they are dependent on arsenic-contaminated water. Generally, poverty level is high in those areas with lack of proper nutrition. Arsenic is considered to be an environmental contaminant and widely distributed in the environment due to its natural existence and anthropogenic applications. Contamination of arsenic in both human and animal could occur through air, soil, and other sources. Arsenic exposure mainly occurs in food materials through drinking water with high levels of arsenic in it. High levels of arsenic in groundwater have been found to be associated with various health-related problems including arsenicosis, skin lesions, cardiovascular diseases, reproductive problems, psychological, neurological, immunotoxic, and carcinogenesis. The mechanism of arsenic toxicity consists in its transformation in metaarsenite, which acylates protein sulfhydryl groups, affect on mitochondria by inhibiting succinic dehydrogenase activity and can uncouple oxidative phosphorylation with production of active oxygen species by tissues. A variety of dietary antioxidant supplements are useful to protect the carcinogenetic effects of arsenic. They play crucial role for counteracting oxidative damage and protect carcinogenesis by chelating with heavy metal moiety. Phytochemicals and chelating agents will be beneficial for combating heavy metal-induced carcinogenesis through its biopharmaceutical properties.

Overexpression of rice glutaredoxins (OsGrxs) significantly reduces arsenite accumulation by maintaining glutathione pool and modulating aquaporins in yeast

Arsenic (As) is an acute poison and class I carcinogen, can cause a serious health risk. Staple crops like rice are the primary source of As contamination in human food. Rice grown on As contaminated areas accumulates higher As in their edible parts. Based on our previous transcriptome data, two rice glutaredoxins (OsGrx_C7 and OsGrx_C2.1) were identified that showed up-regulated expression during As stress. Here, we report OsGrx_C7 and OsGrx_C2.1 from rice involved in the regulation of intracellular arsenite (AsIII). To elucidate the mechanism of OsGrx mediated As tolerance, both OsGrxs were cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli (Δars) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutant strains (Δycf1, Δacr3). The expression of OsGrxs increased As tolerance in E. coli (Δars) mutant strain (up to 4 mM AsV and up to 0.6 mM AsIII). During AsIII exposure, S. cerevisiae (Δacr3) harboring OsGrx_C7 and OsGrx_C2.1 have lower intracellular AsIII accumulation (up to 30.43% and 24.90%, respectively), compared to vector control. Arsenic accumulation in As-sensitive S. cerevisiae mutant (Δycf1) also reduced significantly on exposure to inorganic As. The expression of OsGrxs in yeast maintained intracellular GSH pool and increased extracellular GSH concentration. Purified OsGrxs displays in vitro GSH-disulfide oxidoreductase, glutathione reductase and arsenate reductase activities. Also, both OsGrxs are involved in AsIII extrusion by altering the Fps1 transcripts in yeast and protect the cell by maintaining cellular GSH pool. Thus, our results strongly suggest that OsGrxs play a crucial role in the maintenance of the intracellular GSH pool and redox status of the cell during both AsV and AsIII stress and might be involved in regulating intracellular AsIII levels by modulation of aquaporin expression and functions.

Biochemical and molecular responses underlying differential arsenic tolerance in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

The arsenic (As) is a toxic element causing major health concern worldwide. Arsenate stress caused no significant reduction in growth parameters and shoot electrolyte leakage but showed increased root arsenate reductase activity along with relatively lower root As content and shoot translocation rate in As-tolerant BRRI 33 than in As-sensitive BRRI 51. It indicates that As inhibition and tolerance mechanisms are driven by root responses. Interestingly, As stress showed consistent decrease in phosphate content and expression of phosphate transporters (OsPT8, OsPT4, OsPHO1;2) under both high and low phosphate conditions in roots of BRRI 33, suggesting that limiting phosphate transport mainly mediated by OsPHO1;2 directs less As accumulation in BRRI 33. Further, BRRI 33 showed simultaneous increase in OsPCS1 (phytochelatin synthase) expression and phytochelatins (PCs) content in roots under As exposure supporting the hypothesis that root As sequestration acts as 'firewall system' in limiting As translocation in shoots. Furthermore, increased CAT, POD, SOD, GR, along with elevated glutathione, methionine, cysteine and proline suggests that strong antioxidant defense plays integral part to As tolerance in BRRI 33. Again, BRRI 33 self-grafts and plants having BRRI 33 rootstock combined with BRRI 51 scion had no adverse effect on morphological parameters but showed reduced As translocation rate, increased root arsenate reductase activity, shoot PC synthesis and root OsPHO1;2 expression due to As stress. It confirms that signal driving As tolerance mechanisms is generated in the roots. These findings can be implemented for As detoxification and As-free transgenic rice production for health safety.

Overexpression of Rice Glutaredoxin OsGrx_C7 and OsGrx_C2.1 Reduces Intracellular Arsenic Accumulation and Increases Tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana

Glutaredoxins (Grxs) are a family of small multifunctional proteins involved in various cellular functions, including redox regulation and protection under oxidative stress. Despite the high number of Grx genes in plant genomes (48 Grxs in rice), the biological functions and physiological roles of most of them remain unknown. Here, the functional characterization of the two arsenic-responsive rice Grx family proteins, OsGrx_C7 and OsGrx_C2.1 are reported. Over-expression of OsGrx_C7 and OsGrx_C2.1 in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana conferred arsenic (As) tolerance as reflected by germination, root growth assay, and whole plant growth. Also, the transgenic expression of OsGrxs displayed significantly reduced As accumulation in A. thaliana seeds and shoot tissues compared to WT plants during both AsIII and AsV stress. Thus, OsGrx_C7 and OsGrx_C2.1 seem to be an important determinant of As-stress response in plants. OsGrx_C7 and OsGrx_C2.1 transgenic showed to maintain intracellular GSH pool and involved in lowering AsIII accumulation either by extrusion or reducing uptake by altering the transcript of A. thaliana AtNIPs. Overall, OsGrx_C7 and OsGrx_C2.1 may represent a Grx family protein involved in As stress response and may allow a better understanding of the As induced stress pathways and the design of strategies for the improvement of stress tolerance as well as decreased As content in crops.

Arsenic hyperaccumulation induces metabolic reprogramming in Pityrogramma calomelanos to reduce oxidative stress

Arsenic (As) pollution is a major environmental concern due to its worldwide distribution and high toxicity to organisms. The fern Pityrogramma calomelanos is one of the few plant species known to be able to hyperaccumulate As, although the mechanisms involved are largely unknown. This study aimed to investigate the metabolic adjustments involved in the As-tolerance of P. calomelanos. For this purpose, ferns with five to seven fronds were exposed to a series of As concentrations. Young fronds were used for biochemical analysis and metabolite profiling using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. As treatment increased the total concentration of proteins and soluble phenols, enhanced peroxidase activities, and promoted disturbances in nitrogen and carbon metabolism. The reduction of the glucose pool was one of the striking responses to As. Remarkable changes in amino acids levels were observed in As-treated plants, including those related to biosynthesis of glutathione and phenols, osmoregulation and two photorespiratory intermediates. In addition, increases in polyamines levels and antioxidant enzyme activities were observed. In summary, this study indicates that P. calomelanos tolerates high concentration of As due to its capacity to upregulate biosynthesis of amino acids and antioxidants, without greatly disturbing central carbon metabolism. At extremely high As concentrations, however, this protective mechanism fails to block reactive oxygen species production, leading to lipid peroxidation and leaf necrosis.

Prediction models for transfer of arsenic from soil to corn grain (Zea mays L.)

In this study, the transfer of arsenic (As) from soil to corn grain was investigated in 18 soils collected from throughout China. The soils were treated with three concentrations of As and the transfer characteristics were investigated in the corn grain cultivar Zhengdan 958 in a greenhouse experiment. Through stepwise multiple-linear regression analysis, prediction models were developed combining the As bioconcentration factor (BCF) of Zhengdan 958 and soil pH, organic matter (OM) content, and cation exchange capacity (CEC). The possibility of applying the Zhengdan 958 model to other cultivars was tested through a cross-cultivar extrapolation approach. The results showed that the As concentration in corn grain was positively correlated with soil pH. When the prediction model was applied to non-model cultivars, the ratio ranges between the predicted and measured BCF values were within a twofold interval between predicted and measured values. The ratios were close to a 1:1 relationship between predicted and measured values. It was also found that the prediction model (Log [BCF]=0.064 pH-2.297) could effectively reduce the measured BCF variability for all non-model corn cultivars. The novel model is firstly developed for As concentration in crop grain from soil, which will be very useful for understanding the As risk in soil environment.

Activation of NADPH-recycling systems in leaves and roots of Arabidopsis thaliana under arsenic-induced stress conditions is accelerated by knock-out of Nudix hydrolase 19 (AtNUDX19) gene

NADPH is an important cofactor in cell growth, proliferation and detoxification. Arabidopsis thaliana Nudix hydrolase 19 (AtNUDX19) belongs to a family of proteins defined by the conserved amino-acid sequence GX5-EX7REUXEEXGU which has the capacity to hydrolyze NADPH as a physiological substrate in vivo. Given the importance of NADPH in the cellular redox homeostasis of plants, the present study compares the responses of the main NADPH-recycling systems including NADP-isocitrate dehydrogenase (ICDH), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGDH) and NADP-malic enzyme (ME) in the leaves and roots of Arabidopsis wild-type (Wt) and knock-out (KO) AtNUDX19 mutant (Atnudx19) plants under physiological and arsenic-induced stress conditions. Two major features were observed in the behavior of the main NADPH-recycling systems: (i) under optimal conditions in both organs, the levels of these activities were higher in nudx19 mutants than in Wt plants; and, (ii) under 500μM AsV conditions, these activities increase, especially in nudx19 mutant plants. Moreover, G6PDH activity in roots was the most affected enzyme in both Wt and nudx19 mutant plants, with a 4.6-fold and 5.0-fold increase, respectively. In summary, the data reveals a connection between the absence of chloroplastic AtNUDX19 and the rise in all NADP-dehydrogenase activities under physiological and arsenic-induced stress conditions, particularly in roots. This suggests that AtNUDX19 could be a key factor in modulating the NADPH pool in plants and consequently in redox homeostasis.

Sulfur mediated reduction of arsenic toxicity involves efficient thiol metabolism and the antioxidant defense system in rice

Arsenic (As) contamination is a global issue, with South Asia and South East Asia being worst affected. Rice is major crop in these regions and can potentially pose serious health risks due to its known As accumulation potential. Sulfur (S) is an essential macronutrient and a vital element to combat As toxicity. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of S with regards to As toxicity in rice under different S regimes. To achieve this aim, plants were stressed with AsIII and AsV under three different S conditions (low sulfur (0.5mM), normal sulfur (3.5mM) and high sulfur (5.0mM)). High S treatment resulted in increased root As accumulation, likely due to As complexation through enhanced synthesis of thiolic ligands, such as non-protein thiols and phytochelatins, which restricted As translocation to the shoots. Enzymes of S assimilatory pathways and downstream thiolic metabolites were up-regulated with increased S supplementation; however, to maintain optimum concentrations of S, transcript levels of sulfate transporters were down-regulated at high S concentration. Oxidative stress generated due to As was counterbalanced in the high S treatment by reducing hydrogen peroxide concentration and enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities. The high S concentration resulted in reduced transcript levels of Lsi2 (a known transporter of As). This reduction in Lsi2 expression level is a probable reason for low shoot As accumulation, which has potential implications in reducing the risk of As in the food chain.

Sulfur alleviates arsenic toxicity by reducing its accumulation and modulating proteome, amino acids and thiol metabolism in rice leaves

Arsenic (As) contamination of water is a global concern and rice consumption is the biggest dietary exposure to human posing carcinogenic risks, predominantly in Asia. Sulfur (S) is involved in di-sulfide linkage in many proteins and plays crucial role in As detoxification. Present study explores role of variable S supply on rice leaf proteome, its inclination towards amino acids (AA) profile and non protein thiols under arsenite exposure. Analysis of 282 detected proteins on 2-DE gel revealed 113 differentially expressed proteins, out of which 80 were identified by MALDI-TOF-TOF. The identified proteins were mostly involved in glycolysis, TCA cycle, AA biosynthesis, photosynthesis, protein metabolism, stress and energy metabolism. Among these, glycolytic enzymes play a major role in AA biosynthesis that leads to change in AAs profiling. Proteins of glycolytic pathway, photosynthesis and energy metabolism were also validated by western blot analysis. Conclusively S supplementation reduced the As accumulation in shoot positively skewed thiol metabolism and glycolysis towards AA accumulation under AsIII stress.

Arsenite and arsenate impact the oxidative status and antioxidant responses in Ocimum tenuiflorum L

Biochemical responses of Ocimum tenuiflorum plants were studied upon exposure to arsenite (AsIII) and arsenate (AsV) for 1 to 10 d. Plants accumulated significant amounts of As in leaves (662 μg g(-1) dry weight; DW and 412 μg g(-1) DW in response to 100 μM AsIII and AsV exposure, respectively after 10 d). Consequently, fresh weight and growth of plants declined in a concentration dependent manner. Further, total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents also declined while oxidative stress markers increased, particularly on longer durations. Various antioxidant enzymes and thiols (cysteine and glutathione; GSH) showed significant and variable increases upon exposure to AsV and AsIII with the response being comparatively better in response to AsV. Proline increased significantly upon exposure to both AsIII and AsV. Plants thus tolerated high As concentrations through induced antioxidant machinery.

Arsenic induced modulation of antioxidative defense system and brassinosteroids in Brassica juncea L

Brassica juncea (Indian mustard) L. plants were exposed to different concentrations (0.0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3mM) of arsenic (V) and harvested after 30 and 60 days of sowing for the analysis of growth parameters, metal uptake, brassinosteroids (BRs) synthesis and oxidative stress markers. As (V) significantly hampered the growth of B. juncea plants and triggered the modulations of various stress markers like proteins, antioxidative enzymes (SOD, CAT, POD, APX, GR, MDHAR and DHAR) and MDA content. Furthermore, As (V) induced the synthesis of 4 BRs, castasterone, teasterone, 24-epibrassinolide, and typhasterol, which were isolated and characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The study further highlig5895hted the significant uptake of arsenic ions by mustard plants.

Omics and biotechnology of arsenic stress and detoxification in plants: current updates and prospective

Arsenic (As), a naturally occurring metallic element, is a dreadful health hazard to millions of people across the globe. Arsenic is present in low amount in the environment and originates from anthropogenic impact and geogenic sources. The presence of As in groundwater used for irrigation is a worldwide problem as it affects crop productivity, accumulates to different tissues and contaminates food chain. The consumption of As contaminated water or food products leads to several diseases and even death. Recently, studies have been carried out to explore the biochemical and molecular mechanisms which contribute to As toxicity, accumulation, detoxification and tolerance acquisition in plants. This information has led to the development of the biotechnological tools for developing plants with modulated As tolerance and detoxification to safeguard cellular and genetic integrity as well as to minimize food chain contamination. This review aims to provide current updates about the biochemical and molecular networks involved in As uptake by plants and the recent developments in the area of functional genomics in terms of developing As tolerant and low As accumulating plants.

H2O2 pretreated rice seedlings specifically reduces arsenate not arsenite: difference in nutrient uptake and antioxidant defense response in a contrasting pair of rice cultivars

The study investigated the reduction in metalloid uptake at equimolar concentrations (~53.3 μM) of As(III) and As(V) in contrasting pair of rice seedlings by pretreating with H2O2 (1.0 μM) and SA (1.0 mM). Results obtained from the contrasting pair (arsenic tolerant vs. sensitive) of rice seedlings (cv. Pant Dhan 11 and MTU 7029, respectively) shows that pretreatment of H2O2 and H2O2 + SA reduces As(V) uptake significantly in both the cultivars, while no reduction in the As(III) uptake. The higher growth inhibition, higher H2O2 and TBARS content in sensitive cultivar against As(III) and As(V) treatments along with higher As accumulation (~1.2 mg g(-1) dw) than in cv. P11, unravels the fundamental difference in the response between the sensitive and tolerant cultivar. In the H2O2 pretreated plants, the translocation of As increased in tolerant cultivar against AsIII, whereas, it decreased in sensitive cultivar both against AsIII and AsV. In both the cultivars translocation of Mn increased in the H2O2 pretreated plants against As(III), whereas, the translocation of Cu increased against As(V). In tolerant cultivar the translocation of Fe increased against As(V) with H2O2 pretreatment whereas, it decreased in the sensitive cultivar. In both the cultivars, Zn translocation increased against As(III) and decreased against As(V). The higher level of H2O2 and SOD (EC 1.15.1.1) activity in sensitive cultivar whereas, higher, APX (EC 1.11.1.11), GR (EC 1.6.4.2) and GST (EC 1.6.4.2) activity in tolerant cultivar, also demonstrated the differential anti-oxidative defence responses between the contrasting rice cultivars.

Mechanisms controlling arsenic uptake in rice grown in mining impacted regions in South China

Foods produced on soils impacted by Pb-Zn mining activities are a potential health risk due to plant uptake of the arsenic (As) associated with such mining. A field survey was undertaken in two Pb-Zn mining-impacted paddy fields in Guangdong Province, China to assess As accumulation and translocation, as well as other factors influencing As in twelve commonly grown rice cultivars. The results showed that grain As concentrations in all the surveyed rice failed national food standards, irrespective of As speciation. Among the 12 rice cultivars, "SY-89" and "DY-162" had the least As in rice grain. No significant difference for As concentration in grain was observed between the rice grown in the two areas that differed significantly for soil As levels, suggesting that the amount of As contamination in the soil is not necessarily the overriding factor controlling the As content in the rice grain. The iron and manganese plaque on the root surface curtailed As accumulation in rice roots. Based on our results, the accumulation of As within rice plants was strongly associated with such soil properties such as silicon, phosphorus, organic matter, pH, and clay content. Understanding the factors and mechanisms controlling As uptake is important to develop mitigation measures that can reduce the amount of As accumulated in rice grains produced on contaminated soils.

Selenium ameliorates arsenic induced oxidative stress through modulation of antioxidant enzymes and thiols in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Arsenic (As) contamination of rice is a major problem for South-East Asia. In the present study, the effect of selenium (Se) on rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants exposed to As was studied in hydroponic culture. Arsenic accumulation, plant growth, thiolic ligands and antioxidative enzyme activities were assayed after single (As and Se) and simultaneous supplementations (As + Se). The results indicated that the presence of Se (25 µM) decreased As accumulation by threefold in roots and twofold in shoots as compared to single As (25 µM) exposed plants. Arsenic induced oxidative stress in roots and shoots was significantly ameliorated by Se supplementation. The observed positive response was found associated with the increased activities of ascorbate peroxidase (APX; EC 1.11.1.11), catalase (CAT; EC 1.11.1.6) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx; EC 1.11.1.9) and induced levels of non-protein thiols (NPTs), glutathione (GSH) and phytochelatins (PCs) in As + Se exposed plants as compared to single As treatment. Selenium supplementation modulated the thiol metabolism enzymes viz., γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γ-ECS; EC 6.3.2.2), glutathione-S-transferase (GST; EC 2.5.1.18) and phytochelatin synthase (PCS; EC 2.3.2.15). Gene expression analysis of several metalloid responsive genes (LOX, SOD and MATE) showed upregulation during As stress, however, significant downregulation during As + Se exposure as compared to single As treatment. Gene expressions of enzymes of antioxidant and GSH and PC biosynthetic systems, such as APX, CAT, GPx, γ-ECS and PCS were found to be significantly positively correlated with their enzyme activities. The findings suggested that Se supplementation could be an effective strategy to reduce As accumulation and toxicity in rice plants.

Transformed yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) overexpressing rice Tau class glutathione S-transferase (OsGSTU30 and OsGSTU41) shows enhanced resistance to hexavalent chromium

Extensive use of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] in leather tanning, stainless-steel production, wood preservatives and electroplating industries has resulted in widespread environmental pollution and poses a serious threat to human health. A plant's response to Cr(VI) stress results in growth inhibition and toxicity leading to changes in components of antioxidant systems. In a previous study, we observed that a large number of glutathione S-transferase (GST) genes were up-regulated under Cr(VI) stress in rice. In this study, two rice root-specific Tau class GST genes (OsGSTU30 and OsGSTU41) were introduced into yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). Transformed yeast cells overexpressing OsGSTU30 and OsGSTU41 had normal growth, but had much higher levels of GST activities and showed enhanced resistance to Cr(VI) as compared to control cells (transformed with empty vector). Also, a higher accumulation of chromium was found in the transformed yeast cells as compared to the control cells. Manipulation of glutathione biosynthesis by exogenous application of buthionine sulfoximine abolishes the protective effect of OsGSTs against Cr(VI) stress. These results suggest that Tau class OsGSTs play a significant role in detoxification of Cr(VI), probably by chelating and sequestrating glutathione-Cr(VI) complexes into vacuoles.

Heterologous expression of Ceratophyllum demersum phytochelatin synthase, CdPCS1, in rice leads to lower arsenic accumulation in grain

Recent studies have identified rice (Oryza sativa) as a major dietary source of inorganic arsenic (As) and poses a significant human health risk. The predominant model for plant detoxification of heavy metals is complexation of heavy metals with phytochelatins (PCs), synthesized non-translationally by PC synthase (PCS) and compartmentalized in vacuoles. In this study, in order to restrict As in the rice roots as a detoxification mechanism, a transgenic approach has been followed through expression of phytochelatin synthase, CdPCS1, from Ceratophyllum demersum, an aquatic As-accumulator plant. CdPCS1 expressing rice transgenic lines showed marked increase in PCS activity and enhanced synthesis of PCs in comparison to non-transgenic plant. Transgenic lines showed enhanced accumulation of As in root and shoot. This enhanced metal accumulation potential of transgenic lines was positively correlated to the content of PCs, which also increased several-fold higher in transgenic lines. However, all the transgenic lines accumulated significantly lower As in grain and husk in comparison to non-transgenic plant. The higher level of PCs in transgenic plants relative to non-transgenic presumably allowed sequestering and detoxification of higher amounts of As in roots and shoots, thereby restricting its accumulation in grain.

Identification of redox-regulated components of arsenate (AsV) tolerance through thiourea supplementation in rice

In this work, the effect of the interaction between As and thiourea was utilized for the identification of redox regulatory mechanisms of As tolerance in rice.

Expression in Arabidopsis and cellular localization reveal involvement of rice NRAMP, OsNRAMP1, in arsenic transport and tolerance

Irrigation of paddy fields to arsenic (As) containing groundwater leads to As accumulation in rice grains and causes serious health risk to the people worldwide. To reduce As intake via consumption of contaminated rice grain, identification of the mechanisms for As accumulation and detoxification in rice is a prerequisite. Herein, we report involvement of a member of rice NRAMP (Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Protein) transporter, OsNRAMP1, in As, in addition to cadmium (Cd), accumulation through expression in yeast and Arabidopsis. Expression of OsNRAMP1 in yeast mutant (fet3fet4) rescued iron (Fe) uptake and exhibited enhanced accumulation of As and Cd. Expression of OsNRAMP1 in Arabidopsis provided tolerance with enhanced As and Cd accumulation in root and shoot. Cellular localization revealed that OsNRAMP1 resides on plasma membrane of endodermis and pericycle cells and may assist in xylem loading for root to shoot mobilization. This is the first report demonstrating role of NRAMP in xylem mediated loading and enhanced accumulation of As and Cd in plants. We propose that genetic modification of OsNRAMP1 in rice might be helpful in developing rice with low As and Cd content in grain and minimize the risk of food chain contamination to these toxic metals.

A central role for thiols in plant tolerance to abiotic stress

Abiotic stress poses major problems to agriculture and increasing efforts are being made to understand plant stress response and tolerance mechanisms and to develop new tools that underpin successful agriculture. However, the molecular mechanisms of plant stress tolerance are not fully understood, and the data available is incomplete and sometimes contradictory. Here, we review the significance of protein and non-protein thiol compounds in relation to plant tolerance of abiotic stress. First, the roles of the amino acids cysteine and methionine, are discussed, followed by an extensive discussion of the low-molecular-weight tripeptide, thiol glutathione, which plays a central part in plant stress response and oxidative signalling and of glutathione-related enzymes, including those involved in the biosynthesis of non-protein thiol compounds. Special attention is given to the glutathione redox state, to phytochelatins and to the role of glutathione in the regulation of the cell cycle. The protein thiol section focuses on glutaredoxins and thioredoxins, proteins with oxidoreductase activity, which are involved in protein glutathionylation. The review concludes with a brief overview of and future perspectives for the involvement of plant thiols in abiotic stress tolerance.