Expression of cry genes in Bacillus thuringiensis biotechnology

Bacillus thuringiensis pesticidal toxins: A global analysis based on a scientometric study (1980-2021)

Several studies have been conducted on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) pesticidal toxins due to their successful environmentally friendly biopesticide activity against various insect pest orders, protozoa, mites, and nematodes. However, no existing study has systematically examined the trends and evolution of research on Bt pesticidal toxins from a scientometric perspective. This study aimed to analyze the trends and hotspots of global research in this field. 5757 publications on Bt pesticidal toxins were extracted from the Web of Science Core Collection (WoS) from 1980 to 2021. Statistical and scientometric analyses were performed using Excel, CiteSpace, and VOSviewer visualization tools to evaluate research evolution, journal contribution and subject categories, contributing countries and institutions, highly influential references, and most used author keywords. The 5757 publications featured in 917 journals spanning 116 subject categories. The top 5 subject categories ranked as Entomology, Biotechnology & Applied Microbiology, Microbiology, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, and Agriculture. Out of these publications, the USA contributed the most, with 1562 publications, 72,754 citations, and 46.58 average citations per paper (ACPP); however, Belgium had the highest (106.43) ACPP among the top 20 contributing countries. The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences is the leading institution with 298 publications and 21.20 ACPP. The Pasteur Institute is ranked first (90.04) in terms of ACPP. Keywords analyses revealed that recent studies are inclined toward the evolution of insect resistance against Bt toxins. In future, studies related to the development of resistance mechanisms by insects against Bt pesticidal toxins and ways to overcome them will likely receive more attention. This study highlights the past and current situations and prospective directions of Bt pesticidal toxins-related research.

Key amino acids residues enhance the ability of CpcR to activate cry gene expression in Bacillus thuringiensis

Typical Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) produces one or more parasporal crystals composed of insecticidal Cry proteins during the sporulation, and the parasporal crystals and spores are produced from the same cell. Strain Bt LM1212 is different from typical Bt strains in that its crystals and spores are produced in different cells. Previous studies have found that the cell differentiation process of Bt LM1212 is related to the transcription factor CpcR which activates the cry-gene promoters. In addition, CpcR could activate the Bt LM1212 cry35-like gene promoter (P35) when introduced in the heterologous HD73- strain. It was shown that P35 was only activated in non-sporulating cells. In this study, the peptidic sequences of CpcR homologous proteins found in other strains of the Bacillus cereus group were used as references to identify two key amino acid sites for CpcR activity. The function of these amino acids was investigated by measuring P35 activation by CpcR in strain HD73-. These results will lay a foundation for the optimization of the insecticidal protein expression system in non-sporulating cells.

Sporulation, Structure Assembly, and Germination in the Soil Bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis: Survival and Success in the Environment and the Insect Host

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a rod-shaped, Gram-positive soil bacterium that belongs to the phylum Firmicutes and the genus Bacillus. It is a spore-forming bacterium. During sporulation, it produces a wide range of crystalline proteins that are toxic to different orders of insects. Sporulation, structure assembly, and germination are essential stages in the cell cycle of B. thuringiensis. The majority of studies on these issues have focused on the model organism Bacillus subtilis, followed by Bacillus cereus and Bacillus anthracis. The machinery for sporulation and germination extrapolated to B. thuringiensis. However, in the light of recent findings concerning the role of the sporulation proteins (SPoVS), the germination receptors (Gr), and the cortical enzymes in Bt, the theory strengthened that conservation in sporulation, structure assembly, and germination programs drive the survival and success of B. thuringiensis in the environment and the insect host. In the present minireview, the latter pinpointed and reviewed.

Bacillus thuringiensis-Based Bioproduct: Characterization and Performance Against Spodoptera frugiperda Strains in Maize Under Different Environmental Temperatures

Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is an important pest in several regions being the use of Bacillus thuringiensis-based bioproducts an alternative for its control. Firstly, 3 L of an aqueous bioproduct suspension was produced and characterized. Its 50% lethal concentration against molecularly identified corn and rice S. frugiperda strains using an artificial diet were 77.01% (95% CL, 68.16-90.47) and 2.22% (95% CL, 0.01-6.68), respectively. The next objective of this work was to evaluate the performance of this bioproduct in maize against S. frugiperda strains under different simulated agrological regions mimicking their corresponding periodic day/night temperatures. Thus, the impact of environmental temperature on the bioproduct efficacy (E) was studied. It was observed that a warmer scenario (35 °C day/30 °C night) could favor the tolerance of corn S. frugiperda strain to the bioproduct (E = 56.36 ± 0.61%) maintaining a high efficacy (92.44 ± 6.55%) when it was tested against rice S. frugiperda strain. Conversely, under temperate conditions, efficacy values ranged from 84 to 95% for both S. frugiperda strains. On the other hand, based on a foliar feeding damage analysis, our bioproduct displayed a significant foliar protection in maize plants infested with either corn or rice S. frugiperda strains.

Fungi-enabled pore channel regulation and defect engineering of a novel micro-reactor for treating complex effluents

Defect engineering has become a significant research area in recent years; however, little has been reported on the biological method for modulating the intrinsic carbon defects of the biochar framework. Herein, a fungi-enabled method for the fabrication of porous carbon/Fe₃O₄/Ag (PC/Fe₃O₄/Ag) composites was developed, and the mechanism underlying the hierarchical structure is elucidated for the first time. By regulating the cultivation process of fungi on water hyacinth biomass, a well-developed interconnected structure and carbon defects acting as potential catalytic active sites were formed. This new material with antibacterial, adsorption and photodegradation properties could be an excellent choice for treating the mixed dyestuff effluents with oils and bacteria, also guiding pore channel regulation and defect engineering in materials science. Numerical simulations were carried out to demonstrate the remarkable catalytic activity.

Toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis Strains Derived from the Novel Crystal Protein Cry31Aa with High Nematicidal Activity against Rice Parasitic Nematode Aphelenchoides besseyi

The plant parasitic nematode, Aphelenchoides besseyi, is a serious pest causing severe damage to various crop plants and vegetables. The Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) strains, GBAC46 and NMTD81, and the biological strain, FZB42, showed higher nematicidal activity against A. besseyi, by up to 88.80, 82.65, and 75.87%, respectively, in a 96-well plate experiment. We screened the whole genomes of the selected strains by protein-nucleic acid alignment. It was found that the Bt strain GBAC46 showed three novel crystal proteins, namely, Cry31Aa, Cry73Aa, and Cry40ORF, which likely provide for the safe control of nematodes. The Cry31Aa protein was composed of 802 amino acids with a molecular weight of 90.257 kDa and contained a conserved delta-endotoxin insecticidal domain. The Cry31Aa exhibited significant nematicidal activity against A. besseyi with a lethal concentration (LC₅₀) value of 131.80 μg/mL. Furthermore, the results of in vitro experiments (i.e., rhodamine and propidium iodide (PI) experiments) revealed that the Cry31Aa protein was taken up by A. besseyi, which caused damage to the nematode's intestinal cell membrane, indicating that the Cry31Aa produced a pore-formation toxin. In pot experiments, the selected strains GBAC46, NMTD81, and FZB42 significantly reduced the lesions on leaves by up to 33.56%, 45.66, and 30.34% and also enhanced physiological growth parameters such as root length (65.10, 50.65, and 55.60%), shoot length (68.10, 55.60, and 59.45%), and plant fresh weight (60.71, 56.45, and 55.65%), respectively. The number of nematodes obtained from the plants treated with the selected strains (i.e., GBAC46, NMTD81, and FZB42) and A. besseyi was significantly reduced, with 0.56, 0.83., 1.11, and 5.04 seedling mL^-1 nematodes were achieved, respectively. Moreover, the qRT-PCR analysis showed that the defense-related genes were upregulated, and the activity of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) increased while malondialdehyde (MDA) decreased in rice leaves compared to the control. Therefore, it was concluded that the Bt strains GBAC46 and NMTD81 can promote rice growth, induce high expression of rice defense-related genes, and activate systemic resistance in rice. More importantly, the application of the novel Cry31Aa protein has high potential for the efficient and safe prevention and green control of plant parasitic nematodes.

Identification and Functional Characterization of Two Homologous SpoVS Proteins Involved in Sporulation of Bacillus thuringiensis

Sporulation is an important part of the life cycle of Bacillus thuringiensis and the basis for the production of parasporal crystals. This study identifies and characterizes two homologous spoVS genes (spoVS1 and spoVS2) in B. thuringiensis, both of whose expression is dependent on the σ^H factor. The disruption of spoVS1 and spoVS2 resulted in defective B. thuringiensis sporulation. Similar to Bacillus subtilis, B. thuringiensis strain HD(ΔspoVS1) mutants showed delayed formation of the polar septa, decreased sporulation efficiency, and blocked spore release. Different from B. subtilis, B. thuringiensis HD(ΔspoVS1) mutants had disporic septa and failed to complete engulfment in some cells. Moreover, HD(ΔspoVS2) mutants had delayed spore release. The effect of spoVS1 deletion on polar septum delay and sporulation efficiency could be compensated by spoVS2. β-Galactosidase activity analysis showed that the expression of pro-sigE and spoIIE decreased to different degrees in the HD(ΔspoVS1) and HD(ΔspoVS2) mutants. The different effects of the two mutations on the expression of sporulation genes led to decreases in Cry1Ac production of different levels.

IMPORTANCE There is only one spoVS gene in B. subtilis, and its effects on sporulation have been reported. In this study, two homologous spoVS genes were found and identified in B. thuringiensis. The different effects on sporulation and parasporal crystal protein production in B. thuringiensis and their relationship were investigated. We found that these two homologous spoVS genes are highly conserved in the Bacillus cereus group, and therefore, the functional characterization of SpoVS is helpful to better understand the sporulation processes of members of the Bacillus cereus group.

Advances in research on calf rennet substitutes and their effects on cheese quality

Milk coagulation is an important step in cheese production, and milk-clotting enzymes (MCEs) play a major role in this process. Calf rennet is the most widely used MCE in the cheese industry. The use of calf rennet substitutes is becoming necessary due to the limited availability of calf rennet and the increase in cheese consumption. The objective of this review is to summarize the latest findings on calf rennet substitutes (animal MCEs, plant-derived MCEs, recombinant MCEs and microbial MCEs) and their application in cheese production. Special emphasis has been placed on aspects of the effects of these substitutes on hydrolysis, functional peptides, cheese variety and cheese yield. The advantages and disadvantages of different calf rennet substitutes are discussed, in which microbial MCEs have the advantages of less expensive production, greater biochemical diversity, easier genetic modification, etc. In particular, some of these MCEs have suitable characteristics for cheese production and are considered to be the most potential calf rennet substitutes. Moreover, challenges and future perspectives are presented to provide inspiration for the development of excellent calf rennet substitutes.

Phylogenetic analyses suggest centipede venom arsenals were repeatedly stocked by horizontal gene transfer

Venoms have evolved over a hundred times in animals. Venom toxins are thought to evolve mostly by recruitment of endogenous proteins with physiological functions. Here we report phylogenetic analyses of venom proteome-annotated venom gland transcriptome data, assisted by genomic analyses, to show that centipede venoms have recruited at least five gene families from bacterial and fungal donors, involving at least eight horizontal gene transfer events. These results establish centipedes as currently the only known animals with venoms used in predation and defence that contain multiple gene families derived from horizontal gene transfer. The results also provide the first evidence for the implication of horizontal gene transfer in the evolutionary origin of venom in an animal lineage. Three of the bacterial gene families encode virulence factors, suggesting that horizontal gene transfer can provide a fast track channel for the evolution of novelty by the exaptation of bacterial weapons into animal venoms.

Genetically modified entomopathogenic bacteria, recent developments, benefits and impacts: A review

Entomopathogenic bacteria (EPBs), insect pathogens that produce pest-specific toxins, are environmentally-friendly alternatives to chemical insecticides. However, the most important problem with EPBs application is their limited field stability. Moreover, environmental factors such as solar radiation, leaf temperature, and vapor pressure can affect the pathogenicity of these pathogens and their toxins. Scientists have conducted intensive research to overcome such problems. Genetic engineering has great potential for the development of new engineered entomopathogens with more resistance to adverse environmental factors. Genetically modified entomopathogenic bacteria (GM-EPBs) have many advantages over wild EPBs, such as higher pathogenicity, lower spraying requirements and longer-term persistence. Genetic manipulations have been mostly applied to members of the bacterial genera Bacillus, Lysinibacillus, Pseudomonas, Serratia, Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus. Although many researchers have found that GM-EPBs can be used safely as plant protection bioproducts, limited attention has been paid to their potential ecological impacts. The main concerns about GM-EPBs and their products are their potential unintended effects on beneficial insects (predators, parasitoids, pollinators, etc.) and rhizospheric bacteria. This review address recent update on the significant role of GM-EPBs in biological control, examining them through different perspectives in an attempt to generate critical discussion and aid in the understanding of their potential ecological impacts.

Identification of Cyt2Ba from a New Strain of Bacillus thuringiensis and Its Toxicity in Bradysia difformis

Bradysia difformis is one of the most damaging pests in mushroom production in China. In this study, eight Bacillus thuringiensis strains were analyzed for insecticidal activity in B. difformis. The strain JW-1 showed the highest insecticidal activity against B. difformis larvae, but did not inhibit the mycelial growth of Pleurotus ostreatus and P. geesteranus. The 16S rRNA gene (1397 bp) and cyt2 gene (792 bp) were obtained from strain JW-1. The phylogenetic tree based on 16S rRNA gene and Cyt2 toxin showed that strain JW-1 was a member of B. thuringiensis and Cyt2 toxin belonged to Cyt2Ba toxin cluster. The Cyt2Ba toxin from strain JW-1 was overexpressed in E. coli as a fusion protein and the fusion protein (70 kDa) was purified by Ni-IDA affinity chromatography. The purified Cyt2Ba fusion protein was toxic to B. difformis larvae (LC₅₀ was 2.25 ng/mL). The identification of Cyt2Ba from strain JW-1 and confirmation of the insecticidal activity of Cyt2Ba in B. difformis provided a new means of biological control of the important pest in mushroom production.

Transcription in the acetoin catabolic pathway is regulated by AcoR and CcpA in Bacillus thuringiensis

Acetoin (3-hydroxy-2-butanone) is an important physiological metabolic product in many microorganisms. Acetoin breakdown is catalyzed by the acetoin dehydrogenase enzyme system (AoDH ES), which is encoded by acoABCL operon. In this study, we analyzed transcription and regulation of the aco operon in Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). RT-PCR analysis revealed that acoABCL forms one transcriptional unit. The Sigma 54 controlled consensus sequence was located 12 bp from the acoA transcriptional start site (TSS). β-galactosidase assay revealed that aco operon transcription is induced by acetoin, controlled by sigma 54, and positively regulated by AcoR. The HTH domain of AcoR recognized and specifically bound to a 13-bp inverted repeat region that participates in 30-bp fragment mapping 81 bp upstream of the acoA TSS. The GAF domain in AcoR represses enhancer transcriptional activity at the acoA promoter. Transcriptions of the aco operon and acoR were repressed by glucose via CcpA, and CcpA specifically bound to sequences within the acoR promoter fragment. In the acoABCL and acoR mutants, acetoin use was abolished, suggesting that the aco operon is essential for utilization of acetoin. The data presented here improve our understanding of the regulation of the aco gene cluster in bacteria.