The Ste16 WD-repeat protein regulates cell-cycle progression under starvation through the Rum1 protein in Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Fission yeast LAMMER kinase Lkh1 regulates the cell cycle by phosphorylating the CDK-inhibitor Rum1

In eukaryotes, LAMMER kinases are involved in various cellular events, including the cell cycle. However, no attempt has been made to investigate the mechanisms that underlie the involvement of LAMMER kinase. In this study, we performed a functional analysis of LAMMER kinase using the fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe. FACS analyses revealed that deletion of the gene that encodes the LAMMER kinase Lkh1 made mutant cells pass through the G1/S phase faster than their wild-type counterparts. Co-immunoprecipitation and an in vitro kinase assay also revealed that Lkh1 can interact with and phosphorylate Rum1 to activate this molecule as a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor, which blocks cell cycle progression from the G1 phase to the S phase. Peptide mass fingerprinting and kinase assay with Rum1(T110A) confirmed T110 as the Lkh1-dependent phosphorylation residue. In this report we present for the first time a positive acting mechanism that is responsible for the CKI activity of Rum1, in which the LAMMER kinase-mediated phosphorylation of Rum1 is involved.

Ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation of the p21(Cip1), p27(Kip1) and p57(Kip2) CDK inhibitors

The expression levels of the p21(Cip1) family CDK inhibitors (CKIs), p21(Cip1), p27(Kip1) and p57(Kip2), play a pivotal role in the precise regulation of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) activity, which is instrumental to proper cell cycle progression. The stabilities of p21(Cip1), p27(Kip1) and p57(Kip2) are all tightly and differentially regulated by ubiquitylation and proteasome-mediated degradation during various stages of the cell cycle, either in steady state or in response to extracellular stimuli, which often elicit site-specific phosphorylation of CKIs triggering their degradation.

Fission yeast Tor2 promotes cell growth and represses cell differentiation

The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is an excellent model system in which to study the coordination of cell growth and cell differentiation. In the presence of nutrients, fission yeast cells grow and divide; in the absence of nutrients, they stop growing and undergo cell differentiation. The molecular mechanisms underlying this response are not fully understood. Here, we demonstrate that Tor2, a fission yeast member of the TOR protein kinase family, is central to controlling the switch between cell growth and cell differentiation in response to nutrient availability. Tor2 controls cell growth and ribosome biogenesis by regulating ribosomal protein gene expression. We have found that Tor2 has an additional function in repressing sexual differentiation. Tor2 overexpression strongly represses mating, meiosis and sporulation efficiency, whereas Tor2 inactivation has the opposite effect, leading to cell differentiation, regardless of the nutritional conditions. This newly revealed function of Tor2 appears to operate by interfering with the functions of the transcription factor Ste11 and the meiosis-promoting RNA-binding protein Mei2. Thus, our data reveal a unique regulatory function of the Tor pathway – ensuring that growth and cell differentiation become mutually exclusive and that the choice between them depends on environmental conditions.

Identification of plant-regulated genes in Ustilago maydis by enhancer-trapping mutagenesis

To identify plant-induced genes in the maize pathogenic fungus Ustilago maydis we have developed a genetic screen that combines REMI (restriction enzyme mediated integration) mutagenesis with enhancer trapping using the gene for Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) as vital reporter. Of 2,350 insertion mutants isolated, three were shown to express GFP only after the fungus had come into contact with the host maize plant. One of the genes tagged was mfa1, which encodes the pheromone precursor, while the second gene, pig2, codes for a product that showed similarity to protein disulfide isomerase. The third integration event had occurred in a locus which we designated the p -locus. This locus contains 11 genes in a 24-kb stretch. Of these, pig3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 show a plant-regulated expression pattern, while the other genes found at the locus (designated npi) do not. Of the plant-regulated genes only two were found to be similar to database entries: the pig4 product is related to membrane transporters of the major facilitator family, while the pig6 protein shows similarity to multidrug transporters. Detailed expression studies revealed that the five plant-regulated genes at the p -locus differ in their expression profiles. Mutants deleted for each of them showed no apparent phenotype, while the npi1 gene appeared to be essential. A viable deletion encompassing the entire p -locus could be generated when npi1 function was provided ectopically. This deletion mutant also showed no obvious alteration in virulence.

Rum1, an inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinase in fission yeast, is negatively regulated by mitogen-activated protein kinase-mediated phosphorylation at Ser and Thr residues

The p25(rum1) is an inhibitor of Cdc2 kinase expressed in fission yeast and plays an important role in cell-cycle control. As its amino-acid sequence suggests that p25(rum1) has putative phosphorylation sites for mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), we investigated the ability of MAPK to phosphorylate p25(rum1). Direct in vitro kinase assay using GST-fusion proteins of wild-type as well as various mutants of p25(rum1) demonstrated that MAPK phosphorylates the N-terminal portion of p25(rum1) and residues Thr13 and Ser19 are major phosphorylation sites for MAPK. In addition, phosphorylation of p25(rum1) by MAPK revealed markedly reduced Cdc2 kinase inhibitor ability of the protein. Together with the fact that replacement of both Thr13 and Ser19 with Glu, which mimics the phosphorylated state of these residues, also significantly reduces the activity of p25(rum1) as a Cdc2 inhibitor, it was suggested that the phosphorylation of Thr13 and Ser19 negatively regulates the function of p25(rum1). Further evidence indicates that phosphorylation of Thr13 and Ser19 may retain a negative effect on the function of p25(rum1) even in vivo. Therefore, MAPK may regulate the function of p25(rum1) via phosphorylation of its Thr and Ser residues and thus participate in cell cycle control in fission yeast.

Essential role of MCM proteins in premeiotic DNA replication

A critical event in eukaryotic DNA replication involves association of minichromosome maintenance (MCM2-7) proteins with origins, to form prereplicative complexes (pre-RCs) that are competent for initiation. The ability of mutants defective in MCM2-7 function to complete meiosis had suggested that pre-RC components could be irrelevant to premeiotic S phase. We show here that MCM2-7 proteins bind to chromatin in fission yeast cells preparing for meiosis and during premeiotic S phase in a manner suggesting they in fact are required for DNA replication in the meiotic cycle. This is confirmed by analysis of a degron mcm4 mutant, which cannot carry out premeiotic DNA replication. Later in meiosis, Mcm4 chromatin association is blocked between meiotic nuclear divisions, presumably accounting for the absence of a second round of DNA replication. Together, these results emphasize similarity between replication mechanisms in mitotic and meiotic cell cycles.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate 5-kinase is required for the cellular response to nutritional starvation and mating pheromone signals in Schizosaccharomyces pombe

BACKGROUND

Phosphatidylinositol (3,5) bisphosphate, which is converted from phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate by phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate 5-kinase, is implicated in vacuolar functions and the sorting of cell surface proteins within endosomes in the endocytic pathway of budding yeast. A homologous protein, SpFab1p, has been found in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, but its role is not known.

RESULTS

Here we report that SpFab1p is encoded by ste12+ known as a fertility gene in S. pombe. The ste12 mutant grew normally under stress-free conditions, but was highly vacuolated and swelled at high temperatures and under starvation conditions. In nitrogen-free medium, ste12 cells were arrested in G1 phase, but partially defective in the expression of genes responsible for mating and meiosis. The ste12 mutant was defective both in the production of, and in the response to, mating pheromones. The amount of the pheromone receptor protein Map3p, was substantially decreased in ste12 cells. Map3p was transported to the cell surface, then internalized and eventually transported to the vacuolar lumen, even in the ste12 mutant.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that phosphatidylinositol(3,5)bisphosphate is essential for cellular responses to various stresses and for the mating pheromone signalling under starvation conditions.

COS-l, a putative two-component histidine kinase of Candida albicans, is an in vivo virulence factor

The human fungal pathogen, Candida albicans, has three putative histidine kinases showing homology to those of plants, bacteria and other fungi. We have constructed a homozygous deletion strain and a hemizygous reconstituted strain of one of these histidine-kinase-encoding genes, COS-1, in C. albicans. Neither strain showed any growth defect in a number of liquid media nor increased resistance or sensitivity to a number of antifungal drugs. Importantly, we show that the COS-1 homozygous disruption strain had significantly reduced virulence in a systemic murine model of candidosis. Thus, COS-1 appears to be an in vivo virulence factor and may represent a novel target for the development of antifungal drugs.

Covalent modifier NEDD8 is essential for SCF ubiquitin-ligase in fission yeast

A ubiquitin-like modifier, NEDD8, is covalently attached to cullin-family proteins, but its physiological role is poorly understood. Here we report that the NEDD8-modifying pathway is essential for cell viability and function of Pcu1 (cullin-1 orthologue) in fission yeast. Pcu1 assembled on SCF ubiquitin-ligase was completely modified by NEDD8. Pcu1(K713R) defective for NEDD8 conjugation lost the ability to complement lethality due to pcu1 deletion. Forced expression of Pcu1(K713R) or depletion of NEDD8 in cells resulted in impaired cell proliferation and marked stabilization of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor Rum1, which is a substrate of the SCF complex. Based on these findings, we propose that covalent modification of cullin-1 by the NEDD8 system plays an essential role in the function of SCF in fission yeast.

Homodimer of two F-box proteins betaTrCP1 or betaTrCP2 binds to IkappaBalpha for signal-dependent ubiquitination

We found previously that overexpression of an F-box protein betaTrCP1 and the structurally related betaTrCP2 augments ubiquitination of phosphorylated IkappaBalpha (pIkappaBalpha) induced by tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), but the relationship of the two homologous betaTrCP proteins remains unknown. Herein we reveal that deletion mutants of betaTrCP1 and betaTrCP2 lacking the F-box domain suppressed ubiquitination and destruction of pIkappaBalpha as well as transcriptional activation of NF-kappaB. The ectopically expressed betaTrCP1 and betaTrCP2 formed both homodimer and heterodimer complexes without displaying the trimer complex. Dimerization of betaTrCP1 and/or betaTrCP2 takes place at their conserved NH(2)-terminal regions, termed a "D-domain" (for dimerization domain), located upstream of the F-box domain. The D-domain was necessary and sufficient for the dimer formation. Intriguingly, the betaTrCP homodimer, but not the heterodimer, was selectively recruited to pIkappaBalpha induced by TNF-alpha. These results indicate that not only betaTrCP1 but also betaTrCP2 participates in the ubiquitination-dependent destruction of IkappaBalpha by forming SCF(betaTrCP1-betaTrCP1) and SCF(betaTrCP2-betaTrCP2) ubiquitin-ligase complexes.

Two distinct ubiquitin-proteolysis pathways in the fission yeast cell cycle

The SCF complex (Skp1-Cullin-1-F-box) and the APC/cyclosome (anaphase-promoting complex) are two ubiquitin ligases that play a crucial role in eukaryotic cell cycle control. In fission yeast F-box/WD-repeat proteins Pop1 and Pop2, components of SCF are required for cell-cycle-dependent degradation of the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor Rum1 and the S-phase regulator Cdc18. Accumulation of these proteins in pop1 and pop2 mutants leads to re-replication and defects in sexual differentiation. Despite structural and functional similarities, Pop1 and Pop2 are not redundant homologues. Instead, these two proteins form heterodimers as well as homodimers, such that three distinct complexes, namely SCFPop1/Pop1, SCFPop1/Pop2 and SCFPop2/Pop2, appear to exist in the cell. The APC/cyclosome is responsible for inactivation of CDK/cyclins through the degradation of B-type cyclins. We have identified two novel components or regulators of this complex, called Apc10 and Ste9, which are evolutionarily highly conserved. Apc10 (and Ste9), together with Rum1, are required for the establishment of and progression through the G1 phase in fission yeast. We propose that dual downregulation of CDK, one via the APC/cyclosome and the other via the CDK inhibitor, is a universal mechanism that is used to arrest the cell cycle at G1.

SKP2 is required for ubiquitin-mediated degradation of the CDK inhibitor p27

Degradation of the mammalian cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor p27 is required for the cellular transition from quiescence to the proliferative state. The ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of p27 depend on its phosphorylation by cyclin-CDK complexes. However, the ubiquitin-protein ligase necessary for p27 ubiquitination has not been identified. Here we show that the F-box protein SKP2 specifically recognizes p27 in a phosphorylation-dependent manner that is characteristic of an F-box-protein-substrate interaction. Furthermore, both in vivo and in vitro, SKP2 is a rate-limiting component of the machinery that ubiquitinates and degrades phosphorylated p27. Thus, p27 degradation is subject to dual control by the accumulation of both SKP2 and cyclins following mitogenic stimulation.

F-box/WD-repeat proteins pop1p and Sud1p/Pop2p form complexes that bind and direct the proteolysis of cdc18p

Ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis plays an important role in cell-cycle control [1] [2]. In budding yeast, the protein Skp1p, the cullin-family member Cdc53p, and the F-box/WD-repeat protein Cdc4p form the SCFCdc4p ubiquitin ligase complex, which targets the cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) inhibitor Sic1p for proteolysis [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8]. Sic1p is recruited to the SCFCdc4p complex by binding to the WD-repeat region of Cdc4p [5] [6], while Skp1p binds to the F-box of Cdc4p [9]. In fission yeast, two distinct Cdc4p-related proteins, Pop1p/Ste16p [10] [11] and the recently identified Sud1p/Pop2p [12], regulate the stability of the replication initiator Cdc18p and the Cdk inhibitor Rum1p. We show here that, despite their structural and functional similarities, the pop1 and pop2 genes fail to complement each other's deletion phenotypes, indicating that they perform non-redundant, but potentially interdependent, functions in proteolysis. Consistent with this hypothesis, Pop1p and Pop2p formed heterooligomeric complexes when overexpressed, and binding of Cdc18p to Pop2p was dependent on Pop1p. The Pop1p-Pop2p interaction was mediated by the amino-terminal domain of Pop2p which, when fused to full-length Pop1p, rescued the phenotype of a Deltapop1Deltapop2 double mutant. Thus, close physical proximity of two distinct F-box/WD-repeat proteins directs proteolysis mediated by the SCFPop ubiquitin ligase complex.

Two F-box/WD-repeat proteins Pop1 and Pop2 form hetero- and homo-complexes together with cullin-1 in the fission yeast SCF (Skp1-Cullin-1-F-box) ubiquitin ligase

BACKGROUND

In the ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis pathway, a ubiquitin ligase (E3) is responsible for substrate selectivity and timing of degradation. A novel E3, SCF (Skp1-Cullin-1/Cdc53-F-box) plays a pivotal role in cell cycle progression. In fission yeast, F-box/WD-repeat protein Pop1 regulates the level of the CDK (cyclin-dependent kinase) inhibitor Rum1 and the S phase regulator Cdc18.

RESULTS

We have cloned and characterized the pop2+ gene which encodes the Pop1-related F-box/WD-repeat protein. Pop2 plays a role which overlaps with Pop1 in the degradation of Rum1 and Cdc18. However, these two proteins are not functional homologues. Pop1 and Pop2 form hetero-as well as homo-dimers in the cell. We have analysed two fission yeast cullin members and found that cullin-1 functions as a component of SCFPop1,2, whilst cullin-3 is involved in the distinct stress-response pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Fission yeast SCF is composed of Pop1 and Pop2, two structurally related but functionally independent F-box/WD-repeat proteins. By forming three distinct complexes, SCFPop1/Pop1, SCFPop1/Pop2 and SCFPop2/Pop2, SCF has evolved a sophisticated mechanism to control the level of Rum1 and Cdc18. Fission yeast SCF also contains cullin-1 as a universal scaffold and each cullin member plays a distinct biological role.